Humanism and Anti-Humanism in Europe's Historical Culture

The paper looks at the darker side of humanism in Europe's historical culture, focusing on the contemporary period, and exploring the abuses of the notion of 'humanism' by authoritarian and (would-be) totalitarian regimes, under the impact of modernism and its negative double, anti-modernism.

"Light, Truth, Education": History in European Humanism

1. The education of the ideal speaker must equip him with “all antiquity and a wealth of historical examples”, thus argues M. Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE). He extols history’s power and achievements in a short hymn: history sheds light on the dark shades of past times (lux veritatis); history is a witness (testis) in a trial which should bring to light the whole truth; history is the living force of memory and the adviser of human life. Being a part of rhetoric history became an important element of general education in Western Europe. A man called “umanista” (first instances in the 15th century) is a teacher occupied with poiesis, rhetorica, historia, and moralis scientia. It is the education system which the names of the profession (umanista) and of the program (humanismus) are derived from.
2. The Stoic doctrine of man introduces Nature dressing him up with the general role (persona – mask) of a rational being and with the specific role (propria persona) of an individual. The third role which Nature imposes is called “situation, chance, time” (casus et tempus). In this doctrine, then, time ranks with mind, individuality, free will as constituents of the human being. Man is conceived of as imperfect in body and mind, shaped by time, destined do make progress (prokopé; pro-gredi).
3. On a third level history is a structural element in humanism itself. The rhetorical and philosophical traditions just mentioned and a considerable bulk of scientific chronology (Eusebius – Hieronymus) and historiography (Aristotle, Tacitus) were embedded in modern European humanism. Its very structure evokes, again and again, the awareness of historical distance and cultural difference: Greco-Roman culture is our nearest stranger.
Comparative research will check if this crucial role of history – in education, in the anthropological concept of man, in the very structure of humanism – is a necessary precondition for a world view, a tradition, an ethical system to be classified as “humanism”.

Humanism in India and its Muted Response in History

Despite the existence of humanitarian concerns and a great many humanists in the long course of Indian history, humanism in the sense of Western movement, by and large, did not emerge in India. India’s contacts with the Colonial powers did result in modernization and socio-cultural reforms; latter through various enlightened thinkers and humanists of the land in the 19th and 20th centuries. Indian thinkers did develop even from earlier times their own forms of humanism, some within the overall orthodox tradition, while others were focused on ethical virtues, independent of theistic ideologies, such as Buddhism, Jainism or even the extreme materialist systems of thought, such as the Carvaka and the Lokayata philosophies.
Colonial contacts unfortunately did not result in mutual sharing of the finer humanistic values of the two traditions; India was exposed to a rather coarser form of Western humanism that was not particularly appealing either to the Indian masses or to the intellectuals. An intercultural dialogue between India and the modern Europe is possible if the limits of humanism are stretched, though within the rationalist framework, i.e. if Western humanism could be viewed in its wider perspective – as a form of system redesigning since Italian Renaissance against what was perceived as a stagnant ‘order’ dominated by religious and feudal institutions. Contrary to the expectations of Empiricist historians of a changeless India, the five thousand year old Indian history has witnessed at least seven major phases of system redesigning, two of which, viz., the Bronze Age Indus Valley urban civilization and the Iron Age second urbanization since the time of the Buddha, were comparable at least in spirit, if not in detail, to what happened in late Medieval Europe. But in none of the seven cases one finds any tendency of absolute suppression or elimination of earlier traditions. Indian civilization with all its cultural diversity is known for acceptance and retention of different cultural forms, including the foreign elements that appeared from time to time to strengthen the cultural vitality of India.
It will be elaborated in the end that official or professional history, understood as a narrative of linear human progress, has generally been insensitive in dealing with extraordinary, traumatic events resulting in large-scale human suffering in India. It is humanism that complements history particularly in matters where history in its zeal to march forward shows little inclination to pause and retraumatize or mourn over such events. The problem of untold human miseries – large-scale killings, rape and abduction of women for example, as a result of partition of the British India is conveniently defused by highlighting points of celebration in the two countries and future courses of development. Pain and suffering constitute a forgotten source of Western historical consciousness that needs to be revived in order to prevent history from undergoing further derailment.

Concept and "Restitution" of History - Octavio Paz' Postcolonial Humanism

In Latin America postcolonial experiences have been accumulated for about 200 years. The intellectual debates these experiences have stimulated are especially rich and sophisticated. However, they are hardly taken into account in the recent debates about postcolonialism.
In my paper I would like to focus on the Mexican writer and poet Octavio Paz, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1990. Although Paz is known outside of Mexico, his work has not been systematically discussed until recently. His most important essay The Labyrinth of Solitude, has long been understood as a contribution to the Mexican debate about national identity. However, most parts of it present an interesting assessment of Mexican history from a postcolonial perspective.
In my paper I will address this postcolonial reading of the Mexican history that Paz is proposing. I will pay special attention to his reading of Mexico's colonial history.

Humanism in the Perspective of Gender Studies

The intellectual project of humanism is confronted with the issues of differences and equality. While it was proclaimed as the study of ‘man’, it faces the diversity of human conditions and identities according to gender, ethnicity, class and cultures. Gender studies have contended with these differences and with resulting inequalities. The paper aims for a mutual reflection of humanism and feminism in exchanging their contributions to this challenge. It will be substantialised by analysing the tensions of cultural conflicts in the context of gender and migration.

Humanism as History in Contemporary Africa

The socio-political imagination of contemporary Africa is usually beckoned upon a deconstruction of historiography - usually colonial history. At which point, African history would become a history of humanism. Drawing example from the South African experience, ubuntu emerged into the national consciousness as a displacement narrative of apartheid discourse. Where apartheid (just as colonialism) denied persons of African origin human dignity, ubuntu gains emotional legitimacy by (1) acting as a displacement narrative to apartheid discourse and (2) offering a new method of history that thrives on humanization of African historiography.

La construction européenne et les limitations de la souveraineté nationale : convergences et divergences franco-britanniques.

La création des communautés européennes puis de l'Union Européenne a comme visée une intégration des économies et des structures financières des états (processus d'intégration sectorielle confirmé par les traités de Maastricht, Amsterdam et Nice). Dans ces secteurs la souveraineté des états membres est limitée par les délégations de compétences ou les compétences partagées, cependant dans le domaine plus sensible de la défense et de la sécurité c'est le principe de la coopération qui l'emporte. De 1951 à nos jours la France et la Grande-Bretagne ont eu des réponses différenciées qui seront évoquées dans la communication.

Ideologie et politique. L'Etat-nation, sa conception, ses influences givergentes au terrain politique

Etat et Nation dans les règlements de Paix de 1919/1920

Analysis of the relationship between state and nation under the conditions of the quest for a new international order after 1918.

Construction européenne et Etats nations au lendemain de la Deuxième Guerre mondiale

Il s'agit de réfléchir au thème de la limitation de la souveraineté nationale au travers de la phase initiale de la construction européenne. L'Europe communautaire contre l'Etat nation ?

Europe Centre-Orientale apres 1945: la question de la souverainete de l'Etat et de la continuite du systeme legal-cas polonais

Evidemment, la Pologne apres 1944 n'etait independante et souveraine; le texte mene de la Constitution de 1952 etait personnellemt corrige pan Stalin.
Apres 1989 la question de continuite et legalite du system de droit etait tres discute par les juristes. le resultat etait non pan l'invalidation total deu systeme juridique, mais sar reconstruction et modification.

The Advance of New Technology: Re-Appraising the Progress of the Steamship in the Nineteenth Century.

The shift from sail to steam during the nineteenth century is one of the great watersheds in maritime history. It was truly a revolution and because of this the literature on the transition both generally, and on a national case study basis, is immense. This paper appraises both the historiography and the conclusion that generally, and particularly in the case of Britain - the pioneer of steam and the first national mercantile fleet to undergo the transition - the process was slow and gradual. The seminal works of such writers as Graham, Harley, Greenhill, Gardner, Kaukianen, Palmer, Starkey and many others are reviewed. Past approaches in terms of subjectivity and bias, measures utilised, the appropriateness of assessing progress through comparisons with sail within national fleets and the significance of specific trades and routes are all considered. Besides critically examining modern scholarly views of the transition, the paper also considers how contemporaries viewed the progress of steam, an aspect that we believe has been seriously neglected in past assessments. Our conclusion is likely to suggest a re-appraisal of past interpretations of one of the great themes of maritime history and maritime historical research.

“The First Battle of the Atlantic: Competition for the North Atlantic Bulk Cargo Trades, 1850-1914”

The repeal of the British Navigation Acts came at a time when the hegemony of the UK in world merchant shipping was being challenged by the United States, and a number of commentators in Britain expressed the fear that the American fleet would soon overtake the British. In fact, the opposite occurred: before the end of the 1850s the US deep-sea merchant marine began to decline, a trend that was exacerbated by the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 and the passage of some unfavourable legislation almost immediately thereafter. At the same time, continued growth in investment enabled the United Kingdom to maintain a fairly consistent share of world tonnage up to World War I. A significant share of British tonnage was concentrated in the lucrative North Atlantic trades, which became even more important with the onset of a significant boom in exports from the United States after the late 1860s. But the relative withdrawal of the American fleet did not leave an open field for British shipowners because the new openness in international trade triggered by the repeal of the Navigation Acts and the movement towards free trade spawned increasing competition from a host of relatively low-cost cross-traders.

This paper will examine the competition that ensued after the mid-nineteenth century in the North Atlantic trades. It will examine in particular the battle for the burgeoning bulk trades with the UK and Europe emanating from the rapidly growing US economy. Using a variety of sources, especially from the US, Britain and Norway, most of which have never before been used in quite this way, the essay will delineate and explain the shifting patterns of this competition. The analysis will shed new light on the competitiveness of merchant shipping in the world’s most important sea lanes during the period in which the modern international economy first came into being.

Baltic Shipping and Trade, 1497-1857

One of the Western world’s most important waterways was the Sound, through which passed all shipping between Western Europe and the Baltic. This shipping and trade is documented in the famous Sound Toll Registers which are kept today from 1497 to 1857. The importance of this source material is proved by the fact that UNESCO, in 1997, included it in the prestigious Memory of the World Register.
My paper will discuss the international shipping in and out of the Baltic, as it can be described by using the information in the Sound Toll Registers, 1497-1857. The presentation will include such aspects as shipping volume, sailing routes, seasonal variations, and nationalities of vessels, as well as carreers of the skippers. In addition to these purely maritime aspects, my presentation will touch briefly upon the patterns of Baltic trade through the centuries. A general survey of this kind, covering three-and-a-half centuries, has never been carried out before.
My intention is also to direct the attention of maritime historians to the fact that all information from the Sound Toll Registers concerning the 1.7 million ships’ passages through the Sound, 1497-1857, is now being entered into a database. This project is a cooperation between the Danish National Archives (which keeps the original records) and the University of Groningen and other Dutch research institutions (which have raised the funding and provided the manpower). The project was begun in 2008 and is expected to be finished in 2011 when the database will be accessible via the internet.

The Cryolite Shipping from Greenland to North America

One of the few resources of international relevance available on Greenland in the first half of the 20th century was cryolite. This mineral was not only crucial for the production of aluminum but more important: The only known deposit worldwide was in South-West Greenland. The cryolite mine at Ivittuut was operated by a Danish – North American consortium since the 19th century and the mineral was shipped to Europe and North-America onboard Danish or US vessels.
During the 1930s cryolite gained international relevance because of the growing relevance of aluminum for the aircraft industries and especially the production of military air-craft. Finally the cryolite mine at Ivittuut became one of the reasons for US military operations on and off Greenland during WW II.
First the proposed paper will introduce how the cryolite shipping from Greenland was organized during the interwar period under the Danish colonial regime.
The following main part of the paper will discuss how this shipping changed at the dawn of WW II and more important why and how US Coast Guard vessels operated against German forces in this particular theatre of war even before the war between Germany and the USA was officially declared. Furthermore the paper will demonstrate how the US used international institutions like the International Ice Patrol (IIP, established at the SOLAS London conference 1913/14) as a pretext for naval operations off Greenland before the actual declaration of war.
Finally the paper will analyze the role of US Coast Guard, US Navy and US Merchant Marine vessels for the transformation of the near stone-age society of the Greenlandic Inuit towards a modern western-style society.

‘Elite and popular devotion in the cult of English saints, c.600-1000’

In this paper, I will explore the question of how far it is possible to distinguish popular devotion from elite devotion in the period 600-1000, when the written sources available all stem from the religious elite. I look at notions of popular religion and at different types of saints' cults in England before 1000.

Sainteté catholique et protestante aux XVIe-XVIIe siècles

Le protestantisme refuse la vénération des saints. Pourtant il propose certains hommes en modèle. Il s'agit de voir quels modèles sont présentés et l'usage qui en ait fait. Une comparaison pourra être effectuée avec l'évolution du modèle catholique de sainteté à la même époque.

"Saints" and "Icons" of Modern Sport

The later nineteenth century saw the emergence of a new kind of sports star, admired not only for his skill, speed, strength and endurance, but for more spiritual virtues. At a time of mass religious and political mobilisation and also of intense nationalism, sport became one of the principal arenas for international and ideological rivalry, and sportsmen were seen to be fighting for the honour of their nation, their ethnic group, their church or their political party. Sporting exploits thus became material for political and religious propaganda; sporting heroes came to be seen as embodiments of the finest qualities of a wider community, and to provide the favoured role-models for the young. While none may have been formally canonised, they might be seen as the saints of an era in which the most universally recognised achievements were those in the field of sport. Meanwhile modern sport was developing its own repertoire of virtues and its own saints, identified with no specific religion or ideology, except in the sense that in the eyes of many sport was the new religion of the twentieth century. The cult attached to some of the most revered of these saints included pilgrimages to the place of their death and the leaving of ex votos by those who attributed their own sporting successes to the deceased star’s inspiration. At the same time there appeared a new kind of sporting hero, the ‘icon’, whose beauty was more physical than moral, and whose powers were mainly deployed in the interests of advertising. From small beginnings in earlier decades this phenomenon grew to reach full flowering in the last years of the twentieth century.

"Let Them Exhibit Holiness": Vestments and Clerical Sanctity in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries

This paper will connect the artistic and material evidence for changes in liturgical vestments to new claims advanced by the “Gregorian” reform for clerical sanctity.

Surviving garments and documentary sources reveal a new opulence in liturgical attire from the early tenth century. Vestments increasingly featured the use of precious Byzantine and Islamic silks with intricate woven patterns and embroidered decorative elements using silk and gold-coated thread. This change in the material culture of the secular clergy developed out of Carolingian exegetical fascination with the description of the high priest’s garments in Exodus 28 and attempts to instil clerical virtues through instruction in and reflection upon the liturgy and liturgical garb.

Interestingly, although we know that such fabrics and artisanal skills were abundant in Rome across the early Middle Ages, they are not used for liturgical vestments until the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Their visual representation in frescoes and mosaics, moreover, links the embrace of these new fashions in Rome with reform agendas, particularly regarding the status of the clergy. The paper will focus especially upon the frescoes in the lower basilica of San Clemente and the apse mosaic of Santa Maria in Trastevere. In these works, clerics – even those in minor orders – are visually assimilated to saints through their opulent liturgical attire and sometimes even through the absence of halos. These representations of the clergy articulate the same principles enunciated in reform legislation: the Second Lateran Council in 1139 enjoined the clergy to “exhibit holiness” in their attire.

Startsy and popular notions of holiness in nineteenth-century Russian Orthodoxy

The prominence of elders (startsy) whose ministry was largely informal in nineteenth century Russian church, point to the persistence of early Christian notions of holiness as eloquently described by Peter Brown. The survival or, more precisely, reinvention of ancient practices of spiritual guidance and eldership in modern Russia, however, raise several problems. Contrary to the view that eldership emerged as a counter-reaction to modernisation of the church and society, I would like to argue that elders responded to modernised tendencies attracting both traditional-minded peasants and tormented intelligentsia. The paper proposes to examine the phenomenon of eldership and notions of holiness from the perspective of an ordinary Orthodox Christian who came to elders seeking spiritual advice and intercession.

War of Extermination - When did it begin and where dit it happen?

It was the young Erich Nolte who almost half a century ago first characterized the German warfare from 1941 onwards as "the most monstrous war of conquest, of enslavement, and of extermination that we know of in modern history". Since then, WW II historiography has used the term "war of extermination" (Vernichtungskrieg) to describe Germany’s unprecedented conduct of war that was not limited to enemy soldiers. First and foremost in the Soviet Union, millions of enemy soldiers and civilians fell victim to a form of terror unthought-of before. An avalanche of literature has been published that focuses on the role the German armed forces, SS and police units played within the war of extermination.

But its widespread use has led to a certain ambiguity of what the term war of extermination actually stands for. Above all, it describes the explosion of violence accompanying the German assault on Russia in summer 1941. An aggressive national socialist propaganda against the so called judeo-bolshevism paved the ground for the large scale murder of millions of soviet prisoners-of-war and Jews, including women, children and old people, whereat German police, SS and armed forces cooperated with local auxiliaries. Two nationwide discussed exhibitions and the most recent German WW II literature have given this dark chapter of the Eastern theatre of war broad attention. But there are also studies focusing on other theatres of war and use other periodizations. Historians have argued that features of the war of extermination – as the deployment of special police squads as killing units, the persecution of Jews and a high number of executions carried out by German soldiers – could be already observed during the Polish Campaign in 1939. Others have traced transmissions of the brutal methods applied in Eastern Europe to German occupied countries in Western and Southern Europe. And: Was the war of extermination really a typical German way of warfare? John Dower has shown how during the Pacific War, deep-rooted hatred and prejudices plus a propaganda machinery operating at full stretch led – on both sides of the front line – to the de-humanization of the enemy, resulting in merciless violence against prisoners-of-war and civilians alike.

The paper will propose a feasible definition of the term “war of extermination” and discuss its applicability to various periods and places of WW II.

A Research Report on Japanese Use of Chemical Weapons During the Second World War

The term chemical warfare (CW) refers to the use of a variety of poisonous chemical compounds against humans or other biological organisms as a weapon of mass destruction. Since the practical use of chemical weapons frequently involves the transformation of chemical compounds into a gaseous state, chemical weapons are also called poison gas weapons.
The use of poisonous chemical compounds in warfare has a long history. However, it was not until the end of the nineteenth century that the first attempt was made to prohibit the use of poisonous agents in warfare. As a result of the fear and concern over the use of chemical weapons, the problem was widely discussed and incorporated into international treaties from the beginning of the twentieth century. During the First World War, both sides used chemical weapons in large quantities and caused huge numbers of casualties. Arguments against the use of chemical weapons became increasingly vocal. As a result, the 1925 Geneva Protocol prohibited the production, storage and use of chemical weapons. From the Second World War until the early 1990s, this treaty was the primary legal document prohibiting chemical weapons.
Japan was among the many nations that signed the 1925 Geneva Protocol before the Second World War, although it did not ratify the treaty until 1970. The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) was signed in January 1993 and became effective in 1997.
By the time of the Second World War, several international powers possessed chemical weapons. However, since these countries feared retaliation in kind, the majority did not use them. The only country that engaged in large-scale battlefield use of chemical weapons was Japan, primarily against China.
Japan began to research and manufacture chemical weapons immediately following the First World War. In the early 1930s Japan became one of the few international powers to possess chemical weapons. After the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in 1937 the Japanese Army, following orders from the Japanese high command, began to use chemical weapons against the Chinese, causing serious casualties.
When Japan surrendered in August 1945, the Japanese Army stationed in China either buried its remaining chemical weapons or dumped them into rivers. The Army’s actions were carried out in accordance with orders from Japan in an effort to cover up its violation of international treaties and avoid international criticism. Due to lack of time, however, many chemical weapons were simply hidden among conventional munitions. As a result of the secrecy surrounding Japanese engagement in chemical warfare, China was not officially notified of the fate of these weapons following the war and it was not until years later that some of the details of Japanese chemical warfare against the Chinese began to be uncovered.
Of particular concern is the fact that many of the poisonous compounds used in chemical weapons do not deteriorate over time. After the war, chemical weapons stockpiles abandoned in China were discovered frequently – although only after causing environmental pollution and a large number of civilian casualties.

Political Lessons or Cultural Images? The Impact of the First World War on 'Hitler's Europe

My paper seeks to analyze the aims and functions of German occupation in both World wars, using the concept of total expansion or delimitation.
Furthermore it seeks to determine to what extent the collective memory and experience of the previous war has influenced and shaped Hitler's policy as well as the behaviour of German soldiers in Nazi occupied Eastern Europe.

Japan’s Policy (1937—1945)on the Battlefield behind Enemy Lines of CPC in the Japanese Occupied Areas in China

With the capture of Wuhan in October 1938, Japan has occupied large areas of North China, Central China and southern China since Japan launched the all-out war of aggression against China in July 1937. During this period, the Communist Party of China (CPC) immediately led the Eighth Route Army, the New Fourth Army and other anti-Japanese armed forces to penetrate the Japanese occupied areas to establish the anti-Japanese bases, mobilize the masses to carry out the guerrilla war and open up another anti-Japanese battlefield in China ----the battlefield behind enemy lines. Japanese authorities took various means of repression for the resistance movements led by the CPC in the occupied areas. In military, they conducted the "clean-up" operations with a large number of troops to sweep out the CPC; In economy, they imposed an economic blockade in the areas; In politics, they fostered the puppet regime to implement the tactic of " Using Chinese to Subdue Chinese " and etc. But those tactics were thoroughly smashed by the CPC and other anti-Japanese armed forces. During 1941-1943, the battlefield behind enemy lines of CPC had become the main battlefield to fight against the Japan’s aggression against China. From 1944 to 1945, it was the main battlefield for Chinese to counterattack the Japanese troops, which indicated the complete failure of Japan’s policies on the battlefield behind enemy lines of CPC in the Japanese occupied areas in China.

Does historical truth still matter?

This paper deals with the problems history faces today due to the widespread trend towards a moralistic interpretation of the past. This trend is related to a complex ensemble of phenomena such as the increasing weight of historical topics in internal and international politics (public use of history), the reopening of procedures of retribution for the victims of Nazi Germany in the countries of the ex Eastern block, the diffuse tendency to attribute a generic “victim-status” to an increasing amount of historical subjects, the blurring distinction between history and memory, the increasing relevance of politics of memory.
Since “historical truth” is always dependent on the context and perspective, it is unavoidable that the contemporary “moralisation of the past” also affects historiographic practice, namely in the sense that elements of the prevailing moral discourse are absorbed with little or no reflection into the historical narrative and without being sufficiently documented in the sources. The paper will therefore deliver a contribution to the critique of historical writing in the era of a hegemonic moralising discourse. The point is not to try to solve the problem of the moral interpretation of historical phenomena, but much more modestly to examine how historical narratives are affected by existing practices of victimisation, self-victimisation and moralisation. Apparently, it is difficult not only in the public sphere but also in historical discourse to differentiate between the moral condemnation of crimes and the cognitive reconstruction of historical processes. In other words, it is not easy to resist the temptation to attribute to historical events a certain sense of justice and to (inappropriately) use justices as a historical category.
Admittedly, historical research has always been practised in a context marked by non-scientific, non-scholarly factors. This has been the case with national histories, the history of the labour movement or the history of variously discriminated groups. But the maintenance of counter narratives or complementary narratives was easier in those cases than in the current public victimisation discourse. This latter discourse claims a higher and more universal moral legitimacy, making it all the easier for historical analyses, which question even partial aspects of this construct to be accused of moral unworthiness. It cannot therefore be excluded that with regard to sensitive topics of historical research the traditional “right of veto” of the sources” (Reinhard Koselleck) might be substituted by rights of veto emanated by official or not official moral authorities. Thus the question chosen as title of this paper: “Does historical truth still matter?”

Paris dans l'historiographie politique française

Capitale, scène essentielle de la vie politique française (sous la monarchie, l’empire ou la république), Paris a toujours été au cœur des études d’histoire politique dans l’historiographie française.
La communication examine les influences, les resonnances, de plusieurs paramètres (contextes, institutions, pouvoirs, projets éditoriaux…) dans l’écriture de l’histoire politique de Paris.
L’objectif premier vise à dégager les traits structurants des représentations et des approches de la capitale.
A travers un large corpus (publications, articles, colloques…) sur les productions du XIXème-XXIème siècle, le présent projet entend souligner les problématiques dominantes, les différents configurations et les évolutions d’une position, voire d’une posture, donnée à Paris, dans les travaux des historiens du politique.

Lamprechtianism as an Ideology of the Rising Middle Class Intelligentsia: the Case of Finnish Historiography in the Early 20th Century

The proposed paper focuses on the complex interplay between local traditions and “imported” intellectual products, the emphasis being placed on the interpretation of the ideas of the German historian Karl Lamprecht in the early 20th century Finnish historiography. The discussion is based on the postulate presented by Georg G. Iggers, according to which the Methodenstreit, which broke out in 1891, was not a German but a transnational event, although having different political connotations in various European countries and in the Westernizing world (e.g. Japan).

The Lamprecht controversy reached Finland in the very beginning of the 20th century, mediated by a group of young scholars who had enthusiastically participated in Lamprecht’s historical seminar in Leipzig in 1898/99. In Finland, the controversy was inherently related to a debate among historians about which area of historiography should be accorded the central place in explaining historical events and which spheres of society should be considered structurally and causally fundamental. Especially among the younger generation of rising middle class intelligentsia, it was generally felt that the traditional individualistic political history, focused on the state, elites, and the “great personalities” was in a state of crisis. These approaches were no longer able to respond to the new challenges of modernity, such as the integration of the supposedly alienated workers into the nation or the means for understanding the complexity of interests which make up modern politics. While the antidemocratic political bias of the established historical scholarship became apparent, also its understanding of history was considered unsatisfactory.

With a means produced by Lamprechtianism, it was possible to create a scientifically sanctified vision of the past and the future that was freed from the encumbrances of God and metaphysics, allowing the masses of ordinary people to step forward into the limelight of historical interest as an actor of the utmost importance. At the same time as the educated middle classes were building a more egalitarian society, however, they were trying to crown their own political leading position with the concept of historical necessity. Thanks to irresistible historical forces, they themselves claimed to articulate the conscious and unconscious needs of the masses. Lamprechtianism was thus used by them as an ideological weapon both against their superiors and their inferiors.

Les metamorphoses de l'historien. Histoire politique de l'historiographie espagnole (1900-1978)

Les historiens espagnols, en tant que sujet collectif, ont suivi, tout au long du XXe siècle, un processus de transformation fondamentale qui eut des conséquences profondes sur plusieurs plans:
1. Sa perception de soi, de sa fonction sociale, de sa place parmi les scientifiques sociaux;
2. La formation et délimitation des champs de spécialité, comprenant une implosion théorique et une explosion des champs de recherche
3. L'organisation universitaire: nouvelle reglémentation des diplômes et reproduction universitaire, nouvelle structure universitaire partout en Europe, augmentation du nombre d'Universités, d'historiens et d'étudiants d'histoire;
4. La structure et fonction des publications périodiques;
5. L'engagement politique et social des historiens;
6. Leurs rapports avec l'État.
Cet ensemble de transformations, qui suivirent une évolution différente dans chacun des États européens, peut être appréhendée à travers une approche comparée. En effet, on peut décéler dans le cadre européen une série d'éléments communs qui peuvent être suivis à travers la trajectoire typique de l'historiographie espagnole, marquée par les interférences de la dictature franquiste.

What is at stake in "world history"?

The paper deals mainly with the changes that recently occurred in the views of world history and with those challenges that are coming from the post-modern approach and from the subaltern studies. Against the background of a long tradition of interpretation, it investigates the political implications that are becoming more and more apparent in the international debate.

Feeling low: the relationship between social status and emotional display in Hellenistic Art

Much has already been written about the emotional reserve advocated in the philosophical texts of the Hellenistic period, about the suppression of gesticulation by Hellenistic orators, and the muted emotional intensity of honorific and funerary images of the period. But while the overt display of emotions was considered unfashionable among the civic elite, expressions of joy, sadness, anger, etc., continued to be depicted, both facially and corporeally, in art images of low-status individuals.
This paper considers whether this discrepancy might represent a form of Hellenistic snobbery, with overt emotional display equated with vulgarity, or whether the difference in emotional content and intensity can better be explained by an understanding of the function, scale and material of the art object.

Material Values: Emotion and materiality in ancient Greece

Written sources reveal large amounts of information, at least for a limited range of specific contexts, about emotion and its roles in ancient Greek society. However, archaeological data, alongside these written sources, can add a whole new dimension to the study of emotion because of the ways in which people invest emotion in material objects. This paper will investigate emotion in ancient Greece through a series of case studies exploring how and why material objects become part of the fabric of human society, and thus objects of value (regardless of whether or not they are 'valuable').

Grief and mourning in Roman context

Grief is a common sentiment, it is a recognized psychological phenomenon, whereas mourning consists of a set of conventional behavioural responses to crisis or death both sanctioned and required by society. Ritual mourning is not necessarily a spontaneous outburst of feeling. Weeping and mourning are a part of a developed system of social behaviour. Sadness and the expression of sadness are two different things. As Radcliffe-Brown has underlined, the mourners come to feel the appropriate sentiment, “and this sentiment is not merely a negative sentiment of sorrow and loss, but a positive emotion of social bonding”. In many societies and cultures ritual lamentation is considered to be a part of the female behaviour. It is not necessarily so. There were different groups of people showing their grief in public pictured in narratives of Roman historiography. The aim of this study is to analyze the public and political role of the mourners in Roman history. In this study the main questions are: who were the mourners, how did they show their feelings, and for what purpose they were “working”? The sources we are dealing with are Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Plutarch and Tacitus.

L’usage rhétorique de la peur dans les sources grecques anciennes et chrétiennes

Le déni de l’émotion de la peur est un topos commun aux auteurs païens et chrétiens. Souvent, ils dénigrent cette émotion chez les adultes en la comparant aux peurs « irrationnelles » associées à la petite enfance. Toutefois, ils évoquent parallèlement l’usage pratique qu’on peut en faire, la peur étant considérée comme un moyen utile d’exercice du pouvoir. La provoquer est une arme puissante aussi bien aux mains du tyran qu’à celles du législateur. Par l’examen des sources, nous allons essayer de cerner ces deux aspects apparemment contradictoires de la manière dont les Anciens appréhendaient cette émotion.

Re- conceptualizing the ‘Public Sphere’ for World Histories

The public sphere is a critical part of the history of Western Europe and North America. Although there are significant interpretive differences, it remains a central part even in the narratives of those who do not fully accept the enlightenment narrative of modern Western history. What makes this narrative difficult to transport across the West/non-West divide is that the concept of the ‘public sphere’ is imbued with a strong sense of autonomy of this sphere particularly from incursions by the state. But many modern historical societies have had a “third realm” of state-society interactions without necessarily developing the ideological armature to defend this realm from the state or other powerful groups.

What elements can we use to re-conceptualize this sphere while retaining its historical power? I will draw on histories of China and India as well as conceptions from nationalism and Foucault’s ideas of ‘governmentality’ to suggest the beginnings of an alternate conceptualization.

The Public Sphere: The Uses of a Concept

Controversial memories in Brazilian schoolbooks and magazines

This contribution wants to show the representations about some controversial events in Brazilian current schoolbooks, the changing of these representations in the latest decades and the public discussion about these changes in Brazilian schoolbooks’ assessment and in Brazilian scientific spreading magazines on History.

1974 Cyprus: “Invasion” or “Peace operation”? Proposals of how to teach a controversial issue

My paper will focus on the ways of teaching in Cypriot primary schools the controversial issue of 1974 war. After a brief description of the 1974 events, I will review the ways in which this issue is currently taught in Cypriot primary schools. I will, further, examine the major theoretical and practical exercises in approaching the subject (e.g. Papadakis, AHDR, Bryant, Spyrou). Before exposing my own proposals of how to teach this controversial issue, I will present the results of a number of interviews taken from primary school teachers of both communities. These teachers have been asked to answer on the ways they teach the subject and the ways they would like to teach it.
In the main part of my paper I will discuss my own proposals of how to teach the subject. More precisely, I will argue on the following points:
- How to show the gaps of the official narrative by bringing to class sources which make students realize the contradictory elements and inconsistencies of the narrative (for example: pictures showing victims of both sides, narrations of Turkish/Greek soldiers on their experience, pictures of destroyed monuments of the opposite side)
- Historicization and contextualization of the event. Make students realize that history is written, that it is a “human” and not a “divine” act (for example: narration of some T/C who were not refugees for the first time in 1974)
- Bring to class multiple perspectives of the event. Ask students to gather various narrations from relatives, neighbors, friends etc.
- Bring together teachers from both sides in order to discuss the subject and pass, thus, from a “monological” way of viewing history to a “dialogical” manner of perceiving facts.
In conclusion, I will argue that the aim is not actually to deconstruct the official narratives and replace them with new constructions. The aim is rather to make students realize that history is not a metaphysical stable tale, but a construction. We have to teach them how to pose questions to the dominant historical narrative and not to give them “ready” answers. Clearly, the challenge of many educational systems today, not only in Cyprus, is to cultivate historical skills that will allow the development of children’s analytical ability to negotiate the complexity of organizing historical knowledge and to critically engage with the controversial past. In other words, controversial issues in history teaching should not only been seen as a problematic instances but also as possibilities for critically teaching the processes behind remembering and forgetting which are the processes that shape our “reality”.

'Using controversial Memories in History Lessons: Perception of Turkish History

Controversial issues, which can be seen in the history curriculum of some developed countries, in history education are given attention in the multicultural societies. As the Turkish history curriculum is examined it seems that curriculum and history textbooks do not have enough information about controversial issues. Besides this, some history teachers face problems how to teach controversial issues in their courses. Because these issues are debatable and people who have different opinions regarding these topics.
The purpose of this paper is to determine perceptions of Turkish history teachers about controversial issues. A qualitative approach was used in this study in order to gather data in response to the research questions, and the information itself was secured through a semi-structured interview. History teachers who joined this study were chosen from the province of Trabzon through random sampling. In the light of the data, it seems that the great majority of history teachers do not have any education and skills on how to teach controversial issues in their history courses.

Teaching Sensitive and Controversial Issues in History Education. A Specific Methodological Approach?

This lecture would like to explore the work of EUROCLIO on implementing innovative methodology in history teaching, with special reference to teaching controversial and sensitive history.
Educating young people is a responsible task of a society. History education has always been used to enhance the national sense of belonging of younger generations. In the late 20th century internal struggles in Bosnia, Estonia, Latvia, Macedonia, Moldova and Georgia as well as interstate conflicts in Former Yugoslavia, demonstrated that historical interpretations of recent and distant events in the past still can play an important role. History educators in Europe became in the late Twentieth Century more aware that such conflicts also derived from the biased historical narratives presented also through school education.
It was therefore time to have a common critical look at the traditional approach to school history and to increase the responsibility of individual history educators in history education for peace and democracy. It was obvious that one teacher alone would not be able to make such change, and therefore a group of history educators in Europe took the initiative to create in 1993 EUROCLIO, the European Association of History Educators. This Association took as its mission to promote and support the development of history education so that it strengthens peace, stability, democracy and critical thinking. It promotes the sound use of history education towards building and deepening of democratic societies and therefore tries to connect across boundaries of countries, ethnicities and religions.
Its members explore together ways to implement these universal values, humanistic dispositions and democratic competencies, in order to give meaning to education for good citizenship and reconciliation. History teaching should therefore also closely be linked to current knowledge, experiences, challenges and problems.
In order to achieve such goals, educators within the network, have been looking into a methodology enhancing the manner how history should be taught and would be able to address more difficult, sensitive and controversial issues. The practitioners became during this search more and more aware that school history firstly has to fulfill general methodological requirements before it really will be able to address the more difficult bits.

The innovative (EUROCLIO) history teaching approach starts with an (engaging) question, followed by critical use of empirical evidence, looking into historical perspective of interpretation, keeping in mind the knowledge, mentalities and values of the respective period and opening a discussion about the relevance and impact for the present. But such approach also looks for ways how history teaching can further curiosity and a spirit of inquiry, develop the ability to think independently and offer resistance to being manipulated.

However methodological changes stands not alone. Responsible teaching history also requires new ways to address historical knowledge. This means a much better balance than in the current history teaching, between political, cultural, economic and social issues and of geographical dimensions perspectives, and addressing ‘white spots’ and a multi-perspective approach to the stories of the past. Such educational approach does not white-wash a problematic narrative of the past, in order to get a non-controversial, rosy picture. No this past only has become more multidimensional and consequently less one sided, biased, and politicised. Complexity is here the key concept.

The EUROCLIO methodology asks for agreed responsibility and ownership of the peer group and collaborative inter-ethnic and inter-religious work after identification and a shared understanding of the needs of local target groups . Its work is process orientation based and believes in reinforcing professional talents as the basic resources for innovation and change. In all activities EUROCLIO stimulates a cross-border and international focus and the use of external supervision and monitoring. EUROCLIO understands its approach as universal, reflecting a code of good conduct for the profession.

Since 1993, EUROCLIO has organized across Europe a variety of activities focusing to implement such methodology in countries such as Bulgaria, Ukraine, Rumania, Russia and Turkey. In Bosnia, Croatia Cyprus Estonia, Georgia Latvia, the Republic of Macedonia and Serbia the work also addressed sensitive controversial histories between the different ethnic and religious communities.

In such work trust building has became the key concept as only under stable, responsive conditions within the professional group, common work is really possible and, in due course, ultimately even addressing sensitive and controversial issues become possible. The teams are asked to produce a truly collaborative work.
But such work on controversial and sensitive history even requires sincere civil courage from the participants, as professionals under these circumstances run easily the risk of being attacked by local colleagues- academic historians and history educators alike- politicians or media. Unfortunately this grass root work is recurrently unpopular as it is not reflecting fashionable populist political stances. In order to prevent negative pressure on the professional groups, project teams are working in (relative) silence. Only when the local team feels confident to tell their story, contacts with local educational authorities, politicians, opposition historians and media are developed. This quiet procedure also avoids accusations of foreign interference.
This contribution would like to demonstrate with examples from EUROCLIO project publications how this methodology is applied
However, also in 2010, many school history narratives in Europe, continue to tell a mono-perspective story as it is demonstrated in the results of the 2010 EUROCLIO Annual Questionnaire. The answers give evidence that a teaching of history, looking into a variety of positions and perspectives, is still far from implemented. In Europe students are still well informed about the national winners and the national victim hood. If their country lost or if it was engaged in aggression or if its citizens were perpetrators or collaborators, they are far less explicitly informed.
Hasty instant solutions are not possible in education. Changing habits and believes is a delicate, sensitive and time consuming assignment for those involved. It is too early to conclude that the EUROCLIO peer and grass root method will be sustainable. However it has offered a successful model for many history educators in Europe to address innovative content as well as on innovative, collaborative, meaningful and effective ways of learning and teaching.

L'enseignement de l'histoire des traites et du colonialisme à travers les mémoires d'Afrique et d'Europe

Les traites négrières et la domination coloniale figurent parmi les plus évoqués dans les constructions des identités collectives au sud du Sahara. Ce poids renvoie à une réalité incontestée. Premièrement nulle société, autre que les africains, n'a été aussi négativement affectée par les pratiques esclavagistes à usage interne et destinées à l'exportation. Après les Européens ont pris possession du territoire africain. Le particularité de la colonisation a été d'associer domination formelle et diffusion de la civilisation métropolitaine.
Ces deux phénomènes peuvent être identifiés comme un procès interactif complexe, caractérisé par une représentation de soi et de ses rapports aux autres.
Comment peut-on définir une approche didactique qui tient compte de la complexité historique et actuelle, et qui reste accessible à des jeunes. Quel équilibre peut-on constituer entre texte et paratexte (dans les manuels)? Comment arriver à un enseignement conceptuel en traitant ce 'partage du monde'? Comment utiliser des textes littéraires pour faire sentir d'une façon plus directe la réalité vécue?

Learning about a controversial past in School History – the experiences of learners in post-apartheid South Africa

In South Africa, under apartheid, History was taught according to a positivist model in which it was claimed that “objective truthful History” was passed on to learners. Consequently, all learners and teachers were expected to subscribe to a Eurocentric History in an uncritical manner in which educational engagement with controversial issues hardly ever occurred and multiple perspectives to issues were not explored. With the coming of democracy in 1994 the system under which History was taught was dismantled and a new curriculum and educational philosophy implemented. The new History curriculum foregrounds the teaching of controversial issues through critical enquiry and by focussing on multiple perspectives as key elements for democratic education. This study investigates, a decade and a half into the rapid political and educational transition endured by South African, the experiences of the teaching and learning of controversial issues in History by learners (the so-called “born frees”) who have completed their schooling in a post-apartheid context.

History textbooks facing controversial memories. The case of the Martial Law in Poland.

Martial law is one of the most controversial periods in the post-WWII history of Poland. Introduced on December 13, 1981 it ended the 16-month-long "festival of Solidarity". Older generations of today schoolchildren’s families can remember army in the streets, curfew or no telephone calls. For some of them it meant arrests, special detention places and other repressions imposed on themselves or on their friends and/or relatives. Others followed the explanations of the official propaganda and regarded the Martial law as the lesser evil (versus the Soviet intervention, civil war or other forms of destabilization). They paid attention to the end of strikes and rallies and the beginning of "normalization". These controversies are brought to public annually at the anniversary of imposition of the Martial law. How does the school history education deal with them?

My paper will be based on the analysis of contemporary Polish history textbooks for all levels of education. Starting with the amount of space devoted to this period, selection of processes, people and events shown, kinds of teaching materials included, forms of activities suggested, I would like to find out what strategies the textbook authors have adopted to present this controversial issue. Do they notice the controversies? Do they show one or more points of view? Do they ask students about their own opinions or about the opinions of their friends or relatives? Are the textbooks open for different interpretations or do they prefer only one? Explicitly or implicitly? How emotional is the text and other materials? The study should also show if any of the models adopted in textbooks is prevailing.

The analysis of the parts of textbooks devoted to the Marshall law will also address the following general problems:
(1) What general attitudes (towards the past, life, others) do the Polish textbooks form?
(2) How does the history education go beyond the principle so popular in the past of teaching only the “scientifically approved” material, that raises no doubts or controversies?
(3) How important is the school education in shaping the people’s opinion about the recent past?
(4) Does the way the Martial law is presented reflect the way the heritage of the “People’s Poland” in general is dealt in the history textbooks?

German colonialism in the landscape of remembrance

German colonial history has been investigated from a critical point of view since the late 1950s and became an issue during the Cold War competition of the two German historiographies. Balances have been presented from both sides at different occasions until 1990 and during the period of evaluation of East German academic institutions.
But over the last 15 years or so a new generation has pre4sented new findings from archival work and relates it to postcolonial concepts and a transnational approach both to German and to African and East-Asian history, while at the same time a public debate on Germany’s role in the history of colonialism got started in the context of discussions on re-compensation for violations of human rights.

The Italian Occupation (1936-41) in Ethiopian and Italian Historical Memory

The five-year Fascist Italian occupation of Ethiopia has left behind indelible memories in both the Ethiopian and Italian psyche. The paper discusses these contrasting memories, marked more by outrage than vindictiveness on the Ethiopian side and with mixed feelings of shame and occasional bouts of neo-fascism on the Italian.

The parliamentary practices of the Basque Country MPs in the Spanish Parliament, 1890-1914

The work that we are presenting at this Congress is framed in a line of research initiated over a decade ago by our research group with the aim of analysing the parliamentary representation of the Basque Country throughout the XIX and XX centuries.In the first phase, we made a microbiographical analysis of the 610 parliamentarians who represented the Basque districts between 1808 and 1939 in two biographical dictionaries, which included detailed biographies of the elected representatives. Our aim was to make a study of the political careers of the parliamentarians based on an exhaustive knowledge of the course of their careers and not on isolated elements. In the second phase, on the basis of this extensive empirical information, we started last year to elaborate a prosopographical analysis of these personages which we continue to develop in this work. In this paper we make an analysis of the parliamentarians who represented the districts of the Basque Country at the start of the Restoration (1890-1914). Thus in this work we are not only analysing a group of parliamentarians, but elaborating a working model for the study of Parliament through its actors.

The parliamentary practices of the Basque Caountry MPs in the Spanish Parliament, 1890-1914

The work that we are presenting at this Congress is framed in a line of research initiated over a decade ago by our research group with the aim of analysing the parliamentary representation of the Basque Country throughout the XIX and XX centuries.In the first phase, we made a microbiographical analysis of the 610 parliamentarians who represented the Basque districts between 1808 and 1939 in two biographical dictionaries, which included detailed biographies of the elected representatives. Our aim was to make a study of the political careers of the parliamentarians based on an exhaustive knowledge of the course of their careers and not on isolated elements. In the second phase, on the basis of this extensive empirical information, we started last year to elaborate a prosopographical analysis of these personages which we continue to develop in this work. In this paper we make an analysis of the parliamentarians who represented the districts of the Basque Country at the start of the Restoration (1890-1914). Thus in this work we are not only analysing a group of parliamentarians, but elaborating a working model for the study of Parliament through its actors.

Patrick Collinson's "Monarchical Republic of Queen Elizabeth I": A House of Cards?

The Bond of Association was organized by the English privy council in the autumn of 1584 as a voluntary society of the political nation in arms. The leading landowners in every county were invited to join the Association, and every signatory swore an oath to protect Queen Elizabeth I against threats to her life from traitorous subjects who sought to replace her on the throne with an alternative claimant, Mary, Queen of Scots. The volunteers pledged themselves to pursue to the death those in whose interests any plot to assassinate the Queen was mounted. This savage clause was nothing less than an inducement to lynch-law, a desperate extra-parliamentary resort to state terrorism. Elizabeth flinched from giving her public approval to the Bond, and when the council sought to legitimize it in an act of parliament in 1584-85 she insisted that it be shorn of its more draconian provisions. The Queen had not been consulted by her councillors before the Bond was formulated – or so it is represented in the orthodox accounts – and its constitutional significance has been represented in recent historiography as an attempt to establish a ‘Monarchical Republic’ in England. As the effective agent of royal government, the argument runs, the council was constrained to take executive action because the queen was too weak and indecisive to assume total responsibility for dealing with the crisis. Elizabeth’s instinct was certainly to distance herself from authorizing an expedient of dubious political morality, and to give the impression that the council was acting on its own initiative in promoting a device to protect her against the prevailing dangers to her life as well as to the security of the Protestant establishment in church and state. Revisionist accounts of the crisis have underlined the unprecedented nature of the exceptional contractual obligations assumed by leaders of the estate of aristocracy in a mixed monarchy. Patrick Collinson has gone further to characterize the situation as the emergence of republican elements in royal governance that were to have reverberations in later political developments. In the discussion generated by Collinson’s claims, which have been developed in various publications over the last two decades, there has been a tendency to accept uncritically his reading of the events of 1584-86. My paper offers a critique of the basic assumptions in the thesis by examining the evidence for Elizabeth’s prior knowledge of the policy enshrined in the Bond and subsequent exploitation of it to her own advantage.

The parliamentary practices of the Basque Country MPs in the Spanish Parliament, 1890-1914

The work that we are presenting at this Congress is framed in a line of research initiated over a decade ago by our research group with the aim of analysing the parliamentary representation of the Basque Country throughout the XIX and XX centuries.In the first phase, we made a microbiographical analysis of the 610 parliamentarians who represented the Basque districts between 1808 and 1939 in two biographical dictionaries, which included detailed biographies of the elected representatives. Our aim was to make a study of the political careers of the parliamentarians based on an exhaustive knowledge of the course of their careers and not on isolated elements. In the second phase, on the basis of this extensive empirical information, we started last year to elaborate a prosopographical analysis of these personages which we continue to develop in this work. In this paper we make an analysis of the parliamentarians who represented the districts of the Basque Country at the start of the Restoration (1890-1914). Thus in this work we are not only analysing a group of parliamentarians, but elaborating a working model for the study of Parliament through its actors.

The ceremonial spaces of parliamentary seances in the Kingdom of Valencia

Middle and Modern Ages Cortes of the Kingdom of Valencia didn´t have a specific building where celebrate their meetings. Among other reasons the place for the celebration was constantly changing. These building should fulfil some suitable characteristics in the same spaces could take place different kind of meetings. On the one hand members of the Cortes needed appropiate rooms to deliberate jointly and separately. On the other hand, the king should have an environment for meeting with the Commissions seeking his audience. Finally the solemn plenary inauguration ceremonies and the closing ones needed specific and well decorated places too. For all these reasons it took place usually in the religious spaces as cathedrals, churches and monasteries, the most appropriates and frequented for the Cortes, according with environmental conditions.

Les images du Parlement au Portugal (1870-1926) - la caricature

On analyse l'importance du rire, de la satyre, de la caricature sur la vie parlementaire, les deputés, les sessions d'ouverture et de clôture, les discours, la violence au Parlement portugais (1870-1926).

The Duke of Anjou' s Entry as Duke of Brabant into Antwerp (1582): The Magnificent Ceremony and the Elusive Charter

During the Revolt of the Netherlands, the Abjuration of Allegiance (1581) to Philip II was followed by the inauguration of François de Valois, Duke of Anjou, as Duke of Brabant with a Joyous Entry into Antwerp in 1582. Celebrated with great pomp and an illustrated printed account, the ceremony was followed by the publication of the first printed compilation of the laws and customs of Antwerp, which had also been confirmed at the inauguration ceremonies. Yet, in spite of strong contemporary interest in the articles of the Charter of the Joyous Entry confirmed in 1582, their text remained unpublished until 1634, more than fifty years after they had first been publicly read and sworn to.
This paper will consider possible reasons why the text of the Joyous Entry Charter was not printed in 1582, whereas the ceremony, by contrast, was lavishly celebrated in print, and followed in the same year by the first printed edition of the laws and customs of Antwerp that had been confirmed on the same occasion. What circumstances, on the other hand, eventually prompted the publication of the text of the Joyous Entry Charter of 1582 as a pamphlet at the Hague in 1634? An analysis of the Charter's articles suggests reasons both for its non-publication in 1582 and for its belated publication in 1634. At the same time, such an analysis confirms essential features of the politics of the Dutch Revolt, such as the defense of the particular liberties of the major cities. The paper will also comment on the complementary functions of public ceremony (in actu and subsequently as pamphlets) and of printed charters of liberties, customs and laws in the early age of print.

A modern edition of the Dutch text of the Joyous Entry Charter of 1582, belatedly printed in 1634, is planned. Together with a short introduction and notes, the edition will also include an English translation of this symbolic text of the liberties of the Estates in the Revolt of the Netherlands.

Print Culture and the Road to Modernity

As Bruno Latour noted in his essay We have never been modern (1993) ‘modernity’ comes in many guises but in one way or another always refers to the passage of time, and more specifically, to the rupture between an archaic and stable past and a new regime of the present (p. 10). In the traditional, oft-criticized but nevertheless quite persistent account of modernity (aka ‘The Glorious Progress of the West’) the advent of print still stands as one of the decisive markers between ‘premodern’ and ‘modern’ cultures and nations, just as orality or the lack of print usually signals traditionality, backwardness and provinciality.
In Voices of Modernity (2003), an illuminating history of language ideologies from Francis Bacon to Franz Boas, which draws significantly on Bruno Latour’s essay, Richard Bauman and Charles L. Briggs point out that whereas the authorization of the printed word has been receiving a great deal of attention in book historical research, ‘the concomitant processes by which print and its attendant discursive formations are constructed in symbolic and ideological opposition to other technologies of communication and modes of discourse’ are still very much in need of critical examination (p. 12-13).
Bauman and Briggs remind us again that Book History is not limited to the study of material objects but should also be in one way or another the investigation of an ideology. In this paper I will discuss the book historical project outlined in Voices of Modernity and demonstrate its potential by introducing a case-study on the problematic re-emergence of print culture in 19th and 20th century Flanders (i.e the Dutch speaking part of Belgium).

The Artists' Periodical as a Material Site for the Creation and Communication of Artistic Identity in Late Nineteenth-Century Holland: a Consideration of Historical Methods

In this paper I explore the subject of artists' periodicals in late nineteenth-century Holland and investigate to what extent and in what ways the periodical functions as a site for artistic community building and the development of a group identity. The paper introduces and considers the genre of artists' periodicals, examines a potential methodology for its investigation and presents a brief illustrated case study of the periodical De Tuin (The Garden). I examine the material within the framework of the shifting discourses on artistic identity occurring during this period and consider how notions of the solitary artistic genius are disrupted by those of a socially driven community art and to what extent the latter is embodied within the collaborative, labour intensive and applied art form of the artists' periodical. Part of the project is historiographical in nature and will address the material nature of artists' periodicals and the inadequacies of a singular disciplinary methodology in examining this aspect of print culture.

Printing and Boundaries

One problem with the usage of the term 'book history' is the concentration upon the printing of books and the neglect of other forms of printing with movable type, engraving and other forms of printed textual production (quite aside from the history of prints and printed illustrations). The history of jobbing-printing (and other non-book printing and publication) also highlights other 'boundary problematics' - notably the tension between livres sans frontières and nationally-based 'history of the book' projects. Jobbing printing is in fact more locally and nationally based – in general terms – and its history can provide thought-provoking counterpoints to book history as practised in many quarters. The intersection between print and manuscript also comes under new review.

The material book in/and the archive

The recent ‘archival turn’ in the humanities has exposed the underbelly of the institutions, sources, and terms of engagement upon which historians rely. Derrida’s ‘archive fever,’ Foucault’s focus on the archive’s politics of exclusion, postcolonial scholars’ examination of archives in the context of technologies of imperial power, conquest, and hegemony, and a general revolt against the positivist claims of objectivity inhering in pre-custodial archive theory and practice have all contributed to a consciousness-raising about what Antoinette Burton terms the “backstage of archives – how they are constructed, policed, experienced, and manipulated.” This paper uses the example of reading in the Boer War to challenge book historians to reconsider their relationship to the archive.

Paul Pry and the Dilemmas of Privacy

Centring on the play of 1825 and its multiple representations through all the media of the period., the paper will focus on the journeys between drama, music, periodicals, poetry, china, signage, public house and ship names of iconographic forms and popular texts in the immediately pre-Dickens era, and the implications of the play and its textual and visual and three-dimensional versions for the beginnings of the modern debate about privacy and its dilemmas.

The State Nobody Wanted, Austria 1918-1939

Hungary – a Traumatized State

After defining the historical contents of the concept of ’national trauma’, the paper will expose the most controversial questions in Hungarian discourses concerning the Versailles peace system. The shocking territorial and population losses of the country as defined by the Trianon peace treaty of June 4, 1920 are still the most important elements of Hungarian collective memory.The paper will address respective scholarship and political uses and abuses of this issue focusing on the following problems:
-was the Habsburg Empire ’doomed to failure’, i. e. the social and political tensions within the empire would have destroyed it sooner or later even without the Great War or the Empire was the victim of the war effort and a ’complex conspiracy’ that brought about its military defeat ?
-what were (and are) the most influential interpretations of the internal causes of the collapse of the Habsburg Empire and ’Historical Hungary’?
-what were(and are) the most important Hungarian arguments against the arrrangements of the Versailles peace system in general and theTrianon peace treaty in particular?
-how does the memory of this national trauma shape present day Hungarian politics and political discourses?
The sources used will not be limited to traditional political documents, oral history, statistics etc. but will include arts and literature as well.

Was Austria-Hungary condemned to disintegrate?

tba

Les hauts et les bas du rêve yougoslave.

La communication va d'abord presenter les origins de l'idée yougoslave et les traditions politiques différentes des peuples unis dans le Royaume des Serbes, Croates et Slovènes, formé en 1918. Toutefois d'après l'auteur un des problemes principals ainsi de la première que de la deuxième Yougoslavie n'étaient pas seulement les ideologies et traditions nationales diffèrentes des peuples unis, mais surtout les ambitions des élites politiques, qui cherchaient dans le cadre de l'état commun - multinational réaliser surtout les aspirations traditionelles de ses propres nationalités. Les communistes, venus au pouvoir en 1945 éssayaient après l'expérience ainsi de la résistance que de la guerre civile pendant la deuxième guerre mondiale a neutraliser les tensions nationales par un system contradictoire et peu democratique: ils ont progréssivement décentralisé et décomposé l'état fédéral et en même temps concentré tout le pouvoir politique dans un seul parti centralisé – le parti communiste. La politique contradictoire et autoritaire communiste était d'après l'auteur dans ce sens une des raisons principales de la crise économique et politique des années 1980 et de la désintegration sanglante et tragique de la fédération yougoslave au début des années 1990.

Interwar Destiny of One of Hapsburg Empire Successors, proved on the Case of Czechoslovakia

Reasons of the Hapsburg Empire decline were: its domestic politics inertia, the lost Great War and the inability of Hapsburgs to emancipate from the dependence on the German Empire as well as political and military struggle of exile political representations of smaller nations in the Hapsburg Empire for their national independance. The postwar Europe was devided into victorious powers (inclusive of new Central- and Eastern-Europe states) and defeted ones but, already since second part of 20ties, the tendency to revision of Versailles peace system was obvious. Czechoslovakia was obliged to pay, at the end of 30ties, by its temporary decline for its multiethnical character and inability to reconstruct, in appropriate time, its centralistically governed state into some form of federal republic, as well as for territorial ambitions of revisionist powers (first of all, Germany and Hungary) and, on the other side, for growing lack of interest of Western democraties in the future of Central Europe and, especially, of Czechoslovakia.

Byzance et l'extrême Orient. Byzance médiateur de la diffusion du savoir entre l'Orient et l'Occident.

Les routes ouvertes par Rome avec l'extrême Orient ont été utilisées aussi par Byzance, outre leur utlité commerciale, les différentes voies de contact ont joué un rôle fondamental dans transmission des savoirs entre l'Est et l'Ouest.

From Byzantium to the Ottomans – Asia Minor and South-East Europe

The Byzantine Empire, which ruled parts of Asia, Africa and Southeast Europe for over a thousand years following the founding of Constantinople in 324, began to lose territory in Anatolia to the Turks beginning in the eleventh century, and in Southeast Europe from the fourteenth century on.

Within two centuries the Ottoman state, which had been founded at the start of the fourteenth century as an Uc Beyliği (frontier principality) on the borders of Byzantium, was a world empire extending from the Danube to the Euphrates and the successor to the Byzantine Empire.

Relying on Byzantine and Ottoman sources, the following subjects will be examined in this paper:

1. The basic factors in the fall of the Byzantine Empire and the emergence of the Ottoman state
2. The conditions under which the the Ottoman state expanded into the Balkans and its relations with the Orthodox population.

Rumanians and Near Eastern Arabs – Connections through Christian Orthodoxy

In Ottoman times Christians all over the Empire were brought together by common aspirations towards freedom of belief, cultural progress and national identity. It is the case of the Rumanians and the Near Eastern Christians, heirs of a shared Byzantine legacy. Connections between these distant communities were made possible by the perilous but fruitful travels of several outstanding hierarchs of the Antiochian Church, most importantly Patriarch Macarius Ibn al-Za’im, his son, Deacon Paul of Aleppo, and Patriarch Athanasius Dabbas. Their long visits to Walachia and Moldavia brought about important cultural events: translations of major Greek and Rumanian works (such as those of Matthew of Myra and Demetrius Cantemir) into the Arabic language specific to Christians of the Levant (approx. 1660 and 1705, respectively), printing of the first church-books in Arabic characters that were allowed in the Ottoman realm (1701 and 1702), and transfer of this printing technology from Bucharest to Aleppo (1704). This contribution sheds light on the cultural ties that were established in the 17th-18th centuries between Orthodox Christians in the Rumanian lands and those in the Near East (present-day Syria and Lebanon), with special focus on the substantial results of these connections. The latest research and developments concerning this topic will be presented alongside current projects under way in Rumanian academic institutions.

Les cariennes sur le coté ouest de la Mer Noire

Pendant la thalassocratie carienne du VIIIe s. av. J-C. - avant la grande colonisation grecque dans la Méditerranée et la Mer Noire - à ce qu’il paraît, des factoreries cariennes ont été fondées sur la côte ouest de la Mer Noire. Seulement deux sources géographiques mentionnent une région Carie et un Port des Cariens. Pourtant si on compare les noms des localités, soit disant grecques, au sud de Callatis, avec la toponymie de la Carie proprement dite (en Asie Mineure), on trouve des concordances qui puissent confirmer « l’hypothèse carienne » au sud de la Dobroudja.

“Institutional Europeanization of the relations between Albanian state and religious institutions during the years 1920-1930".

Albanians throughout history, have always been known for religious tolerance, but propaganda and foreign intrigues, during and after World War I, had convinced people for the existence of religious differences. As a result it was necessary to be restored again in the spirit of the Albanians the feeling of tolerance. During the time when the leader of the country, (initially as a president of republic and after, as monarch: the period after the Revolution of June, Republic and Monarchy: 1924-1939) was Ahmet Zogolli, tolerant relations between various religious elements in the country has been established. This was because a certain modus vivendi between different religious communities in the context of some internal stability of the country for the new leader was needed to rule. Normally we have to do with a kind of internal stability which was not perfect, if is measured by the frequency of internal crisis and external threats, which had to withstand
Ahmet Zog. However, a balance of extraordinary tru;y was achieved, if is compared with the turbulent early years of Albanian independence. King Zog, who was Muslim from Mati,, grown and educated in Istanbul, but with necessary vision to understand the needs of the country just disconnected with the Turkish rule, made sufficient efforts to control, or put in the same channel, different trends of cultural segments of his country. While, he well understood very special position of the Catholic Church, which was very influential to a community in northern Albania, Ahmet Zog did its best put under full control the Catholic Church in Albania. In this regard he also had the special support of various Italian governments.

Kemal Atatürk and the Beginnings of Turkey's Liberalism

The Turkish Republic had established in on 29th October 1923, on the remains of the Ottoman Empire. On 18 September 1922, the armies of the Entente had been defeated and the country was liberated. It followed the abdication of the Sultan, on 1n November 1922, ending this way the 631 years of Ottoman domination. In 1923, the Lausanne Treaty, recognized the sovereignty of the new Turkish republic, and Kemal gained the surname of Atatürk (Father of the Turks) then he became the first president of the country. He is the one who made several reforms who helped the country to get rid of its Ottoman past.

Images of the Balkans in Modern Japanese Newspapers

The purpose of this paper is to describe changing perception of the Balkans in Japan during the Meiji period (1868-1912) by analyzing articles on the region carried in the main Japanese newspapers. Newspapers, the new media just emerging at the end of Edo period, were one of the most important sources of information and had a great influence on the common people’s view of other countries. Since the mid-1870s, when numerous articles on anti-Turkish uprisings in Bosnia and Herzegovina appeared, Japanese newspapers continued to focus their attention to the Balkan affairs from the viewpoint of “Eastern Question” throughout the Meiji period. It could be said that Japan’s perception of the Balkans mirrored her self-image and understanding of international situations. In the former half of the Meiji era, facing such urgent issues as the defense of national independence against the Western Great Powers, Japan identified herself with the Ottoman Empire including the Balkans which faced the same problems in the process of modernization. But this self-image of Japan remarkably changed during about 15 years since the end of 1880s when Japan achieved such national goals as the establishment of the Meiji Constitution, the revision of unequal treaties with the Western Powers and the victory over China in the Sino-Japanese War. The articles on the Balkans in this period showed Japan’s sense of superiority and sometimes even contempt for the Balkans.

Les Pays Roumains et l'Extrême Orient (1300-1700)

Les Balkans, porte de l’Asie vers l’Europe : chemins des hommes, chemins des cultures

Personne ne peut nier à cette région une personnalité toute particulière qui provient de l’influence que l’Orient a exercé sur elle pendant des siècles. Car il serait erroné de considérer que la différenciation des Balkans en relation avec le reste de l’Europe provient de l’invasion et de l’occupation ottomane. Pas du tout, puisque cette invasion ne fut que la continuation de l’influence déjà présente lorsque l’Empire Romain se sépara en deux parties de l’Europe.
L’influence dans le sens Asie-Europe a toujours été plus forte qu’à l’inverse, Hormis l’aventure Alexandrienne, L’Europe n’a jamais voulu entrer en Asie: Les colonies grecques en Asie Mineure étaient des établissement essentiellement mercantiles, non pas des bases de conquête. Exception faite de Rome, aucun empire occidental n’a longtemps résisté sur des terres asiatiques.
C’est ainsi que les Balkans seront les premiers récepteurs de la culture orientale à cause surtout de la faiblesse culturelle intrinsèque des peuples qui l’habitaient. Lorsque de nouveaux peuples, les protoslaves et les slaves arrivèrent aux frontières occidentales, ils voulurent imiter cette Culture infiniment supérieure à la leur ; souvenons-nous que c‘est à Constantinople, au Mont Athos, que les slaves doivent leur premier alphabet et nous sommes déjà au VIII-ème siècle, et de l’obsession des Princes bulgares pour le titre de César-Tsar.
Mais les Balkans ont aussi été une zone de mouvements internes, d’exils permanents, de transferts de population aléatoires (comme l’a si bien fait remarquer le professeur Ducellier ) qui ont conduit à faire de cette terre un conglomérat vivent côte à côte et malheureusement, se mélangent très rarement aux autres peuples.
Le Bosphore et les Dardanelles, ce butin si convoité par quiconque voulait s’approprier de la Mer Noire : Obsession de Catherine La Grande qui baptisa son petit fils Constantin, premier signe d’une reconquête orthodoxe de la Grande Ville : Istanbul. Le Bosphore et les Dardanelles ont été des portes d’entrée en Europe, des réceptacles de la culture orientale mais ils ont très rarement servis de porte vers l’orient.
Les Balkans et l’Asie : une relation culturelle, civilisationnelle toujours accablée par le fardeau du passé.

The French Revolution and the Islamic World of the Middle East and North Africa

If the conception of the eighteenth-century Muslim world of the southern and eastern Mediterranean as frozen by despotism and theocracy has been overturned by a generation of Ottomanists, the historiography connecting that world to the age of revolutions has remained relatively slim. While decades of scholarship have illuminated the European and Atlantic dimensions of the French Revolution, the Mediterranean has more often been considered a barrier than a bridge. The recent push to global history has brought far greater attention to exchange and connectedness, investigating far-flung networks of trade, travel and diplomacy. But global connectedness may not be the only prism through which to view this complex set of entanglements in the revolutionary age. This paper will ask what significance Islam held for the French Revolution, in territorial, economic and ideological terms. It will sketch out some of the responses to this period of global transformation from the Muslim societies of the Mediterranean. Further, it will seek to complicate the connectedness model by raising questions of conflict, divergence and disconnection.

Les perceptions de l'Autre: la guerre et les echanges culturelles en Europe

Au cours de la décennie révolutionnaire des centaines de milliers de Français passent au delà de leurs frontières, ce qui sert à les mettre en contact avec des gens venus d'ailleurs et a modifier leur perception de l’Autre. La grande majorité de ces contacts se réalisent grâce à la guerre, guerre parfois idéologique, parfois plus carrément colonisatrice, qui les expose non seulement a l'animosite et a la violence, mais aussi aux mœurs et aux cultures d’autres peuples. Les réactions des hommes et des femmes des deux côtés ne sont pas toujours de caractère hostile, et les moments de compréhension mutuelle sont nombreuses. L’officier - français, britannique, autrichien ou russe - appartient à une culture militaire déjà très internationale, culture largement respectueuse des mêmes valeurs. Le soldat, quant à lui, ne passe qu’une fraction de son temps au combat ; il a le temps de commenter et souvent d’apprécier les paysages où il passe et les gens qu’il rencontre sur sa marche. La guerre, donc, ne fait pas qu’accentuer les animosités entre les gens des différentes nations. Elle contribue aussi à les rendre conscients de ce qu’ils avaient en commun, d’une culture qu’ils partageaient. Il y avait dans ces échanges un élément important de transfert culturel dont on continue à sentir l’effet après la Révolution et après le retour de la paix en 1815.

Cultural Transfer in Revi olutinary/Napoleonic Italy

The period of the ventennio francese (20 French years, 1796-1814) is considered as the beginning of modern Italy and the Italian Risorgimento. The Napoleonic authorities altered the geo-political structure of the Peninsula, abolishing the Ancien Regime states and deposing their old dynasties and divided Italy into three new parts. Moreover, the French government transformed the political, legal, economic, and cultural structures, introducing new systems modeled on France. The paper will discuss the main cultural, social, and political changes that the Napoleonic government introduced in the Republic/Kingdom of Italy (1802-1814). This northen Italian state, which encompassed roughly one third of the Peninsula, is viewed by historians as one of the best Napoleonic successes in terms of the introduction and implementation of reform programs. More sepcifically, the paper will explore the ideological, educational, administrative, and military (conscription) reforms and their short and long term impact on that Italian state in particular and the Peninsula in general.

Bonapartes' expedition to the East (1798-1801) and its influance on the following development of Egypt

The paper is about the relationship between the French and the Egyptian population and the influance of the French invasion on the following development of Egypt

Images de l'Europe pendant la décennie révolutionnaire

De quelle façon et dans quelles directions l'expérience de la révolution française et des républiques-soeurs d'un côté, et la contre-révolution de l’autre, ont-elles modifié les images de l’Europe qui avaient traversé la République des Lettres? Pendant la décennie révolutionnaire on voit se dessiner plusieurs images de l’Europe. L’Europe est un projet, un dessein qui se veut unitaire, qui se nourrit de mots d’ordre tels que civilisation, culture, fraternité, qui tend à se représenter comme un espace unitaire face aux autres, qui inclut et qui en même temps exclue. Elle se présente aussi comme un espace pluriel, fait par une multiplicité de peuples, et de nations, qui se nourrit de stéréotypes sur les ‘caractères’ nationaux. Ces images font partie de la lutte politique, elles accompagnent ses discours et en sont en même temps le produit.

La Republique du Directoire Comme Republique Atlantique

Depuis quelques années, une dynamique scientifique a mis en valeur la richesse du chantier historiographiques que représentait la période de 1795 à 1799, voire jusqu’en 1802, jusqu’à ce que le brusque tournant de la restauration de l’esclavage, de la signature du Concordat, du vote du consulat à vie, et de l’épuration du tribunat vienne clore une nouvelle expérience républicaine initiée en l’an III, fondée sur la volonté de conserver les acquis de la Révolution dans une forme institutionnelle stable.
D’importants colloques à Clermont Ferrand, à Lille, des biographies, des monographies thématiques dans les domaines de l’histoire politique, économique, culturelle et intellectuelle sont venus montrés l’intérêt qu’il y avait à réfléchir sur ce moment de construction difficile certes, mais tentée tout de même , d’une forme républicaine possible pour la France, encore en guerre contre la première puissance mondiale et affrontant des formes évidentes de guerre civile, contexte à ne jamais mésestimer. Il ne s’agissait nullement de réhabiliter la période mais de réfléchir sur la dimension de laboratoire de sciences politiques pour le XIX e siècle que constituait cette période charnière, longtemps sous-estimée ou écrasée entre les personnalité de Robespierre et de Bonaparte.
Parallèlement à ces recherches, une deuxième tendance est apparue. Il faut en effet espérer que la récente question posée aux concours de recrutement des professeurs d’histoire et géographie du second degré, portant sur les révolutions depuis les années 1770 jusqu’en 1802 ,dans un espace compris entre l’Amérique et l’empire de Russie, n’a pu que sensibiliser toute une jeune génération de jeunes enseignants à la nécessité scientifique de comprendre le phénomène « Révolution française », non pas seulement comme un événement franco-centré, mais comme un « gigantesque événement » ( G. de Staël) à son tour pris dans l’encore plus grand bouleversement du monde des années 1780-1800.
Ainsi la proposition faite il y a plus de cinquante ans par Robert Palmer de travailler sur le concept d’une révolution atlantique, reprise en son temps par Jacques Godechot a démontré toute sa pertinence et l’ampleur des recherches encore à mener afin d’approfondir l’hypothèse interprétative afin de la mettre en relation avec les chantiers nouveaux.
Justement qu’en est-il du lien entre le renouvellement des études sur le Directoire et la volonté de repenser le concept de révolution atlantique ?
Quelle pertinence accordée à la mise en confrontation des deux chantiers, l’un portant sur un modèle national étalé sur une période de quatre ans, l’autre portant sur un système international se déroulant sur une quarantaine d’années 1770 -1810, tous deux portés par les Révolutions des droits de l’homme dans leurs traductions différentes selon les moments ou les traditions nationales ?
Le point de rencontre n’est–il pas problématiquement suggéré par l’idée de la « Grande Nation », première formidable manipulation langagière du général-homme-politique que devient Bonaparte durant l’été 1798, expression grandiloquente que les français s’empressent d’adopter et dont Jacques Godechot fera le titre d’un de ses plus importants ouvrages ?
N’est-il pas tant de remettre en cause cette perspective et de penser différemment le Directoire au travers d’un prisme international, où l’expérience française au lieu d’être présentée dans son inéluctable avancée conquérante et englobante serait délibérément placée comme un carrefour d’expériences et d’influences étrangères, nées d’une forme de cosmopolitisme que la porosité des aventures révolutionnaires avait et a rendu possible.
Pensé ainsi les deux réalités que sont le système des révolutions démocratiques et la tentative de stabilisation républicaine du Directoire deviennent l’enjeu d’une réflexion sur les modalités des échanges politiques économiques et intellectuels, sur l’observation des pratiques politiques en concurrence, sur l’édification parfois conflictuelle, toujours porteuse de germes pour le futur des modèles de gouvernance directement issues des révolutions .
Des destins se construisent par les échanges, des modèles circulent et sont discutés, des études historiques réétudient les révolutions du passé pour tenter de comprendre celles du présent. La nécessité d’inventer une nouvelle diplomatie permet de révéler le jeu d’équilibre entre des puissances dont certaines sont demeurées des monarchies et d’autres sont devenues des républiques.
Une internationale des savants se met en place qui place ses compétence spécifiques dans la perspective de l’édification d’un débat politique sur le meilleur gouvernement possible. En clair, l’interrogation des Lumières sur le meilleur des gouvernements est transportée et discutée in situ, dans la nécessité urgente de construire concrètement des républiques viables.
Dans cette perspective également , les fonctionnaires du Directoire, saisis par la nécessité de classer, d’ordonner et de rendre statistique une réalité qui doit désormais obéir à des impératifs d’ordre républicain sont confrontés à l’avancement des sciences camérales dans d’autres pays européens.
Les transferts de connaissances, les confrontations de modèles, le jeu des traductions, les éditions de textes théoriques ou polémiques, les voyages de personnes finissent par donner l’impression que, par de là les nécessités de la « real politik » issues de Campo Formio, le Directoire n’est pas tant « une Grande nation à vaincre accoutumée », qu’une république influencée par un système de révolutions atlantiques et de républiques occidentales qui traversent en permanence le laboratoire de stabilisation républicaine qu’il incarne. Le sort des patriotes indéfectiblement attachés à l’idée républicaine portée par le Directoire et nullement serviles à sa diplomatie montre la capacité des acteurs historiques, militants, savants, soldats, notables à saisir les enjeux d’un moment de sortie des révolutions sans que soient reniés les fondements des révolutions commencées de l’autre côté de l’atlantique.
En effet, il ne suffit pas d’ouvrir l’expérience républicaine française à l’Europe pour se demander ce que le continent a apporté au modèle français. Il faut aussi s’interroger sur le destin américain des années directoriales.
Le sort de Saint-Domingue qui bascule, le sort de l’empire espagnol travaillé par des républicains d’un genre nouveau, mais aussi et surtout les débuts bien plus problématiques qu’on ne l’a dit de la République américaine, ont des incidences économiques d’abord mais aussi politiques et institutionnelles sur la république telle qu’elle se construit en Europe à ce moment là.

Maritime Trade Changing Fortunes of Port Towns on Konkan Coast in 17th and 18th century

After establishing factory at Surat in 1612, English opened its fronts on coast of Maharashtra i.e. between Surat and Goa. The coast being under the Bijapur rule at that period, with the consent of the king of Bijapur to trade in this territory popularly known as Konkan coast, English merchants opened new counter at Dabhol and Rajapur in 1639 to trade with the market town of Raybag.
This paper tries to trace the fortunes of port towns and its importance as center for trade. The fluctuations in political situations in and outside this region saw lots of shifts in trade and exchange on this ports. This has shown the fluctuations in growth and decline patters of such port town. However, changing political control over this port by one or the other regional power led to the fall of one port town giving rise to another or wise a versa.
Such political factors and changing trading patterns could not create a stable economical substitute for itself in form of local industry or industries on this port town which led this towns depend on European trade brought from the intra Asia and Intra European exchange., restricting its functioning as storehouses giving rise to town providing facilities useful for such type of economy. Such economic changes led to new patterns of urban settlement which generated the mobility of Indian and European merchants in Intra-Asian trade.
Ultimately leading to the establishment of factory at Bombay in second half of 17th century and developing Bomaby as major port town in late 18th century.
Thus to understand the nature of these port towns through successive political change and continuation of economic base that sustained the non-agricultural economic functional of this port town in medieval becomes curios aspect of this paper.

Maritime Heritage Initiatives in the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: Recovering the Past

A major US federal agency that addresses submerged cultural resources is the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The fourteen sites within NOAA’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries extend from American Samoa, Hawaii, and the West coast to Massachusetts Bay, and from the Florida Keys and Gulf, to the Great Lakes—over 150,000 square miles of ocean and Great Lakes.
Within NOAA, several units have personnel with an interest in shipwrecks and other submerged cultural resources. The largest concentration of staff is within the Maritime Heritage Program. Part of the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, it supports the mandate to investigate and survey these resources. Federal legislation, especially the National Marine Sanctuaries Act, requires attention to submerged cultural resources. . The Submerged Military Craft Act (2005) is another important law that directs federal preservation efforts, and has international implications.
This presentation will examine the many ways that the Maritime Heritage Program is engaged in preservation and discovery. Through a discussion of selected projects, it will identify many of the partners that are active with the NOAA Maritime Heritage Program.
This includes not only partners engaged in field work and research, but also for consultation on policy, and for education and outreach programs. The African American Voyage to Discovery Project and the creation of an international year of maritime heritage in 2012 are current outreach projects.
Partnerships include the Mariners’ Museum where the recently completed $30M Monitor Center tells the story of this famous Civil War ship, Mystic Seaport which co-hosted a recent Whaling Heritage Symposium, the Maritime Museum of San Diego, co-sponsor of the triennial Maritime Heritage Conference, the State of Alaska, several universities, and other organizations. NOAA has recently completed the Maritime Heritage Center at the Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary on Lake Huron to better inform the public about shipwrecks on the Great Lakes. An objective of the program is to add knowledge and information to our understanding of maritime heritage.
(power point presentation with illustrations of historic shipwrecks, resources and sites).

Christian Philo-Communism

tba

Christian responses to Socialism, 1945-89: the Czechoslovak case

The contribution focuses on the attitudes of Czech Christians (Catholic, Czechoslovak and protestant churches) towards communist ideology and practice between 1945 and 1989.

The Greek Orthodox Community and Communist Ideology in the Holy Land

What makes Communism so appealing to the Palestinian Christians in Israel? It is an interesting historical fact that the majority the founders of the Communist party were intellectual-secular Christian nationalists; and among these Christians there was a clear dominance of members of the Greek Orthodox community.

In order to understand this phenomenon and this rather odd relationship, this paper will explore the history of the Christian community over the past one-and a-half centuries. The context is important: it begins with the history of Arab nationalism and continues with the longer history of the tension between the Orthodox community and the Greek clergy who have been ruling the Church. It is also related to the history of Palestinian nationalism and the role of the Palestinian-Israelis as a minority in Israel.

Communist ideology will also be examines in relation to other “new” ideologies that have been introduce in the area during the same period. Arab nationalism and secularism are the two key concepts that need to be examines in this relation. It will be argued their meaning to the local community is often different to what it means in other parts of the world.

Against these concepts I will also explore the concept of universalism, which has been an inherent part of Christian philosophy and theology since its early days; the heritage of St Paul and the other apostles. This is a basic lesson of Christianity which has also provided the philosophical foundations for the new ex-territorial notions and transnational ideologies of pan-Arabism and Communism.

I will argue that what we see is a process of complex dynamics through which modern ideologies have been modified and incorporated into the older Christian identities, a process that has not been completed yet and thus serves as a continuous challenge to the community and its intellectual leadership.

This paper is based on an ongoing research looking into historical documents and conducting interviews with local members of the communities, including former and current members of the communist party, their parents (if alive) and their children, people who were forced to convert from one Christian faith to another, the Greek clergy and more. As these issues are continued to be explored I will try to include an up-to-date perspective on the outstanding issues.



___________

Les deux Églises de 1936: La confrontation idéologique au dedans de l’Église Catholique a propos de la Guerre Civile Espagnole (1936-1939).

En Juillet 1936 l'insuccès de ce qui aurait dû être un putsch rapide aboutissait dans une Guerre Civile (1936-1939). Elle va saigner l'Espagne pendant trois longs ans. L'Église va se définir depuis le premier instant du côté des militaires insurgés, car elle s’était déjà mis contre le gouvernement en vigueur jusqu’à ce moment (la 2eme République, 1931-1936) par les mesures sécularisatrices de celui-ci. Les rebelles, qui à aucun moment en ses premières proclames avaient fait mention aucune à la religion comme moteur de sa lutte, trouvaient au soutien de l'Église la légitimation qu’ils requéraient. Avec cela, un tout simple putch militaire contre un gouvernement élu va se transformer en une “Croisée par la Chrétienté et contre le bolchevisme”. Église et Armée vont largement se bénéficier de cette union.
Malgré ça, au dedans de l'Église divers groupes réduits mais très actifs de prêtres vont choisir se rebeller contre ses supérieurs et joindre le faction républicaine. Ils concentreraient ses efforts en défendre la cause gouvernementale devant l'opinion publique européenne. L'exécution de 19 prêtres dissidentes par les troupes franquistes ainsi que la incarcération de cents d'eux dans des prisons de l'Espagne Nationale-Catholique va fortement toucher les catholiques européens. Également, l'extrême cruauté misse en œuvre par le Caudillo (aidé par les propres hiérarchies ecclésiastiques) contre ces prêtres républicains faisait témoignage de la dangerosité que ces prêtres comportaient pour l'image de la l'Espagne Nationale à l'extérieur.
Cette lutte idéologique, dans laquelle les deux factions de l'Église péninsulaire affirment représenter le Christianisme le plus orthodoxe, nous enfonce aux vicissitudes de la construction du discours de la Croisée comme interprétation de la guerre. À la fois, et d'autre part, elle nous offre l’occasion de connaître en profondeur les controversées relations entre le Christianisme et le Communisme au dedans du camp républicain-gouvernemental. Ce débat, la forte confrontation théorique qui s’est crée, nous donne une vision parfaite des tensions entre religion et pouvoir à la naissance de ce mélange sacro- politique appelée le National-Catholicisme Franquiste.

Sacred Sciences and Secularization. The Propagation of the 'Scientific Worldview' and its popular reception in the GDR

Eastern Germany is the most secularized region in the world, with less than 30 percent of the population belonging to any kind of church, and about half of the population considering themselves explicitly non-believing or atheist. The paper argues that this development was not only the result of political conflict, fought with repression and sheer power, but also an ideological conflict. The institutional conflicts between churches and the state were intertwined with ideological conflicts, above all the devaluation of religion by scientistic arguments. Confined to smaller groups and a particular social setting during both the Kaiserreich and the Weimar Republic, the belief in science experienced an impressive institutional take-off in the GDR and contributed to the secularisation process at the individual level.

Identity Construction within the Survival Strategy of the Church in the Soviet State

Scrutinizing church life in the Ukrainian Exarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church in the 1940s – 1980s, the paper focuses on the everyday strategy of survival undertaken by the Church that faced the challenge of the atheist state. Attention is given to the means and ways whereby the Orthodox community ensured its survival in the face of the discriminatory policies of the state and whereby the West Ukrainian "reunited" community ensured its vitality and distinctiveness in the face of official antireligious policies and the hegemonic plans of state and ecclesiastical authorities.
The construction of a timely identity is considered as a key element in the general strategy of the Church’s survival in the Soviet state. This assisted in preventing the isolation of the Orthodox Church from society. This also helped to prevent the complete incorporation of the "reunited" community into the Russian Orthodox Church, respectively the political, social, and national assimilation of the West Ukrainians. The Soviet identity of the Russian Orthodox Church and the so called "lived" identity of the "Church within the Church" effectively served the aim to secure church existence.
The appropriation of the Soviet identity was a predetermined strategy for the Russian Orthodox Church. The urgent need to affirm its political loyalty and maintain its linkage with Soviet society compelled the Orthodox Church to seek the ways to compartmentalize its religious identity with a sociopolitical identity, which was ideologically hostile to it. A lived identity of the "Church within the Church" was a viable option for the West Ukrainian religious community that strove to survive the regime's antireligious measures and the assimilatory plans of secular and ecclesiastical authorities. A separate identity helped the "reunited" community to maintain continuity with the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, retain local ecclesiastical traditions, and prevent their complete incorporation into the Orthodox Church. Granted the ecclesiastical nationalism of the West Ukrainians and a pronounced political connotation of Orthodoxy in the West Ukrainian setting, a superficial acceptance of the Orthodox identity by the "reunited" community had serious sociopolitical and national implications.
The Soviet identity of the Orthodox Church and a lived identity of the "Church within the Church" are similar in yet another important respect. Neither the Russian Orthodox Church, nor the "reunited" community managed to attain a clear sense of identity. The Soviet identity was denied to the Orthodox Church by Soviet authorities. A lived identity of the "Church within the Church" was the reason for the regime’s suspicious attitude and the accusations of "apostasy" from the "catacomb" Church. Inner confusions were felt by members of the Orthodox and the "reunited" communities, because in spite of all the tactics employed, it was hardly possible for them to completely resolve the tensions existing between the conflicting elements of their "dual" or even "triple," as was the case of the "reunited" community, identity.

The siege of Acre during the Third Crusade: Saladin’s failure and the dynamics of a crusader siege

At first glance the siege of Acre during the Third Crusade appears to run counter to our expectations of medieval warfare, being an investment successfully prosecuted within hostile territory, in the face of an entrenched garrison and a relieving army. This paper assesses why Saladin failed to overcome the Latin troops besieging Acre and asks what this reveals about the sultan’s military leadership. It also seeks to place the siege of Acre into the wider context of crusader warfare, questioning whether this episode at Acre was as remarkable as it seems.

The capture of Acre, 1104, and Baldwin I's conquest of the littoral

The capture of Jerusalem in 1099 was seen as the end of the First Crusade, but the new state's first rulers were faced with the problem of holding on to their gains. This paper will examine how the sieges and eventual capture of Acre fitted into Baldwin I's strategy for the long-term security of the kingdom of Jerusalem.

Fall of Acre 1291 and its effect on Cyprus

The extraordinary fall of Acre in 1291 and the seeming end of the crusades and the possibility of regaining Jerusalem had a tremendous effect not only on the European countries but more particularly on local areas such as the island of Cyprus. This paper will use local chonicles such as Amadi and Bustron and my lifelong interest in Cyprus as a locus of one of the most important Templar Trials.

Martyrs for the faith. Denmark, the third crusade and the fall of Acre 1191

This paper investigates Danish participation in the Third Crusade from the preaching of the crusade in 1187/88 to the Danish fleets that arrived in the Holy Land both before and after the fall of Acre. It further investigates the impact of the third crusade in Denmark for the crusades in the Baltic, its reception in literature and art and the implications for the general history of the crusades.

The Marks of the Political Thought of the 19th century with Respest to the Interpretation of Medieval History

At the end of 19th century Hungary was a part of the Autstrian-Hungarian Monarchy with many slavonic population around and in the land. The political thought influenced also the interpretation of medieval history. The paper shows this situation on the works of a fameous historian of this time: Antal Hodinka.

The antecedents of the Prague Congress of the Slavs of 1848

Reception of Autroslavism in the Hungarian federalistic projects from Kossuth to Jaszi

My contribution tries to examine the reception of Austroslavism through federalistic projects in the Hungarian political thinking from Kossuth to Jaszi and further. It wants to show that contrary to what is generally believed, Hungarian thinkers were receptive to this ideas and discuted them

The Slovak Outlook on Austroslavism

The dominant national movement enforcing the politic of the austroslavism (Austroslavismus) in the Habsburg monarchy was the Czech one. From very beginning, mainly from the revolution 1848 – 1849, were Slovak and Czech political movements very close connected. To a certain extent the Slovak nationalistic elite supported this idea which should create in the Habsburg monarchy the Slavonic majority. Nevertheless the political struggle in the Hungarian part of the monarchy strongly limited the Slovak favour toward the contesting national movements in the Austrian part of the state. So the Slovaks sent from time to time demonstrations of sympathy and support for the austroslavistic aspirations, but the Slovak political programmes till First World War were based principally on the Slovak positions within the Hungary.

The "Repertorium Academicum Germanicum (RAG)": German Scholarship in the 15th and 16th centuries

The RAG provides research on the university attendants of the middle ages from 1250 to 1550, who obtained a degree in law, medicine or theology but at least a magister artium. Also those students, who inscribed to a higher faculty or had been identified as persons of noble rank are included. Either their geographic origin or their scope of work was situated within the borders of the Roman Empire.
The RAG is mainly founded by the Union of the German Academies of Sciences and Humanities and as well is an institution of the Swiss Academy of Humanities and Social Sciences.
Since 2001 the basic data of more than 43’000 persons where collected. During the following years up to 50’000 are expected. The Database on the Web provides by now round about 26’000 graduated scholars: (http://www.rag-online.org).
The main objective is the description of the role of these scholars in pre-modern society. Based upon prosopographical data the widespread European networks of the intellectual elite of the Empire can be analysed in order to increase comprehension of the transfer of knowledge. This transfer is one cause for the development of the administration and the fixation of institutions during the 15th and 16th centuries and therefore prepared in some aspects the way to the modern society.
An example may illustrate how these graduates acted in the 15th century. I will discuss the requirements for the decision and the success of graduated scholars to work as councillors for a German ruler, the elector Albrecht von Brandenburg (1414-1486).

Mettre en réseau les bases de données biographiques sur les universités

Plusieurs équipe en Europe travaillent à l'établissement de données biographiques relatives à l'Université, qu'il s'agisse ici de l'ensemble des étudiants sur telle période, là de l'ensemble des docteurs de telle Université ou ailleurs de l'ensemble du corps enseignant universitaire d'un pays sur telle autre période. Aujourd'hui ces recherches visent à structurer ces informations sous forme de bases de données. Le premier projet à avoir mis en place un accès web, le Repertorium Academicum Germanorum, montre à quel point cette politique permet de tirer tous les bénéfice d'une mise en réseau. Malheureusement les forces restent éparses (les données sources sont de natures fort diverses de même que les objectifs de recherche) et induisent des structures de données disparates. Notre objectif de recherche, s'appuyant sur l'expérience du répertoire académique poitevin, serait de mettre en place une infrastructure de recherche permettant d'accéder aux différentes bases de données disponibles. Du fait de la diversité des structures de données, nous ne pouvons nous contenter d'un plus grand commun dénominateur entre les différentes bases, qui amènerait à éviter les informations les plus spécifiques, donc parfois celles de plus grande valeur. Au contraire, notre démarche serait similaire à celle qui prévaut pour les méta-moteurs de recherche sur le web, opérant une réelle mise en réseau et permettant à tous les chercheurs intéressés de prendre leurs informations ou de contribuer.

English title :

Networking the university biographical databases

English abstract :

Many European research teams are currently working on biographical data related to universities: it may concern the whole students over a certain period of time, the whole doctors of a particular university, or a whole country’s university teachers over some period. Current research aims at structuring this information into computerized databases. The first project to ever display these data online (Repertorium Academicum Germanorum ) has shown how useful such a publication mean can be. Unfortunately, research lacks unity – the data are of very diverse nature, and so are the research goals – and results in very different data structures. Drawing on the experience of the Repertorium Academicum Pictavense, our goal is to set up a research infrastructure enabling access to the various databases available. Because of the diversity of data structure, it would not consist in gathering the different existing databases under a “greatest common factor”, which could lead to lose information, especially specific data, generally most valuable. On the contrary, the approach we suggest would be similar to web search meta-engines: it would create a network allowing researchers to use and give any information.

Medieval Conceptions of the Relationship between Scholarship and Universities as Institutions

At the granting of the licentia ubique docendi medieval graduands were presented with a closed book, representing scholarship, and an open book, representing teaching. The ceremony makes evident the distinction between the two, centuries before von Humboldt established our modern terminology for them and stressed their inseparability. Current debates about the relationship between teaching and research in the age of mass higher education raise the deeper question of the ultimate function of universities; are they essentially bastions of knowledge or training grounds for the professions? This dichotomy too goes back to the middle ages, and has been much debated ever since. The present paper aims to discuss these well-worn questions from a less than obvious perspective, namely the history of the institutions themselves. What do the universities established in the Middle Ages tell us about what people thought they were for? Bologna, Paris and Oxford, the universities ex consuetudine and traditionally the ‘archetypes’ for subsequent institutions, came to be structured in ways that reflect different attitudes to the two functions (variations that are also closely linked to the disciplines in which they specialised). The many universities that followed through deliberate acts of foundation tended to demonstrate more utilitarian aspirations and to focus more on teaching, but scholarship of course played its part as well, if less explicitly. Although there has been a tendency to see medieval universities as having a monolithic legacy, the plurality of models and the competitive nature of the university system were among the factors that made possible the ongoing creative tension between these two functions.

The University of Paris as an intellectual pattern in the 15th century

From the 13th century the University of Paris built its reputation for excellence on the favour of the popes, the near monopoly of the theology teaching, the prestige of the scholasticism, and an intellectual heritage going back to the Ancient Greece time, namely the Translatio Studii. At that time Paris personified an intellectual pattern indisputably. The 15th century represents a radical calling into question of the very foundations of this intellectual authority: weakening of the pontifical power, proliferation of new university centres in the Empire and Northern France, depreciation of a certain form of scholastic culture by nascent humanism. The last point pushed down a lot on our view of the History, since French scholars were themselves eventually convinced of their intellectual inferiority in the early 16th century. This paper proposes a change of viewpoint. In fact we must leave out the teleological view of a decadent Parisian pattern at the end of the Middle Ages in order to understand what the intellectual pattern of the University of Paris actually represented for the European learned elite of the 15th century.

Centrum and Periphery - Education of Hungarian Intelligence at European Universities in the 12-19th centuries

The historical Hungary plays a special role in the European higher education, taking part in it from the beginning, but developing his own institutional network only quite late. In the
14-15th centuries three attempts were made to establish own universities, but all of them ceased to exit after one or two decades of activity. The first constant university was established only in 1635 on initiative of the Jesuits. No protestant universities came into being, only a series of Calvinist colleges and Lutheran lyceums were established, without having right to issue an academic degree. Thus, from the beginning, the education of Hungarian ecclesiastical and secular intelligence happened mostly abroad.
Until the 1526 fall of medieval Hungary, the beginning of Ottoman occupation, 12000 Hungarian students were registered at Italian and French universities, as well as in Prague, Vienna and Krakow. After the beginning of the Reformation the direction of student-migration has changed, more and more students being matriculated at German protestant universities, later also in Holland and Switzerland as well. We have knowledge about 13000 such registrants from the 16-17th centuries. After the drive-off of the Ottomans the intensity of foreign studies grew, concentrating mostly on the universities of the Habsburg Empire and Germany.
A characteristic feature for Hungary, being multinational and having a multitude of denomination, was that students brought their scholarship home from the most important scientific centers of Europe, and after their return they nurtured a growing class of intelligence, its members reaching the European cultural centers more and more again.
In the 19th century the number of students has been quadrupled, including several Hungarian and non-Hungarian ethnic groups, as well as numerous representatives of the Jewish people of Hungary. The earlier gradual training changed rather to post-gradual studies after home graduation, focusing on recent sciences. From the universities of the Empire the migration of students spread out to France, England, Switzerland and in largest part to the whole network of institutions of German higher education. On the other hand, Hungarian universities receiving numerous students from Eastern and South-Eastern Europe often played the role of bridges between these territories and Western Europe.

Networking the University Biographical Databases

Many European research teams are currently working on biographical data related to universities: it may concern the whole students over a certain period of time, the whole doctors of a particular university, or a whole country’s university teachers over some period. Current research aims at structuring this information into computerized databases. The first project to ever display these data online (Repertorium Academicum Germanorum ) has shown how useful such a publication mean can be. Unfortunately, research lacks unity – the data are of very diverse nature, and so are the research goals – and results in very different data structures. Drawing on the experience of the Repertorium Academicum Pictavense, our goal is to set up a research infrastructure enabling access to the various databases available. Because of the diversity of data structure, it would not consist in gathering the different existing databases under a “greatest common factor”, which could lead to lose information, especially specific data, generally most valuable. On the contrary, the approach we suggest would be similar to web search meta-engines: it would create a network allowing researchers to use and give any information.

Critiques of Eurocentrism and their Global Connections/ Critiques de l’Eurocentrisme et leur connections global

The paper discusses and contextualizes some of the intellectual flows behind the rising
problem-consciousness of Eurocentrism in global historical thought – a development that can be observed in different world regions. I argue that a wide range of internationally influential movements (such as post-colonialism, subaltern studies, and dependency theory) that came to challenge conceptual hierarchies and proved to be influential in many parts of the world, were de facto products of transnational intellectual networks
spanning across Western and non-Western countries. Nevertheless, despite the
transnational extent of these theories, they nevertheless remain locally contingent. The dominant theories against historiographical Eurocentrism in China are significantly different from the ones in, for example, India or the United States. This is the case because these debates remain characterized by local academic traditions, institutional
settings, experience bases, political climates, and other factors. We need "glocal" perspectives when trying to conceptualize the rising critiques of Eurocentrism in historiography. The piece ends with reflections on the possibilities of pluralistic perspectives on the global past and adequate institutional innovations that would be able to carry such a trend.

'Historiography and the Problem of non-Western Pasts'/ Historiographie et le problème du passé non occidental

This paper starts from the presumption that historiography is not the
objective retelling of a self-evident object- 'the past'- but is rather a
'code', one that constitutes its object. The central element in this code,
it suggests, is humanism/anthropology. It is not because man is a meaning
producing being, who leaves behind traces of himself, that history-writing
is possible; rather, it is historiography that helps secure this humanist/
anthropological presumption. Moreover, the presumption that Man is a
culture secreting and meaning producing being is not universally 'true',
is not (pace Weber) a 'transcendental presupposition', but is rather a
specifically modern and presumption. History-writing, the essay concludes,
is not always adequate to non-Western pasts.

Orients: Time and the Delimitations of History / Les Orients : Temps e la Délimitation de l’Histoire

Since the late nineteenth century Japanese intellectuals have sought to
synchronize Japan into the liberal-capitalist world. The writing of
history that was(is) a part of that process, however, ensures a
hierarchy that placed (indeed places) it as an earlier stage of an ideal
modern place. But while it is presented as a potentially temporary
position along a developmental path, it is a relational position. This
relationality that is projected as remedial is obscured within modern
history. This paper will explore effort of various Japanese to overcome
this relationality by turning to different pasts.

Topoi of Latin Americanism

If there is a canon of "Latin American history" today that canon would consist not of a list of books but instead of a list of keywords and tropes. This paper briefly reviews the topical and tropical history of Spanish American history writing from its origins in the sixteenth century through the twentieth. This history has much to do with "Europe" but it also self-consciously exceeds "Europe" at nearly every turn. This excess may be traced to Spanish America's early historical invention as a world that in both its "natural" and "moral" or cultural aspects surpassed ancient Greece and Rome as well as the Orient. The founding mark of excess would continue in the early postcolonial period and --after a positivist, Marxist, and dependentista hiatus of "defeatism" in the late nineteenth- and early twentieth- centuries marked by the topoi of "failure" and the "not yet"-- today finds its repetition in the post-Marxist and post-dependency contention that "Latin America" (and not India or some other Old World location) is the original home of the postcolonial condition and its history.

Migrations and cultural approaches to Latin American Foreign Policies

Latin American historical formation has been marked by a huge cultural, social, economic and political contribution of migrants. Waves of European and Asian migrants left important impact after the formation of independent states in 19th century and early 20th. Demography has witnessed dramatic changes. Languages and cultural codes has been improved in new sort of mix-societies, as proposed by Latin American intellectuals such as Darcy Ribeiro in Brazil or Leopoldo Zea in Mexico. After the relevant impact of African descents and slavery in colonial times, these two centuries became relevant laboratory of migrant experiences and mixture of cultures which arrived from different parts of the world. This produced a unique experience of social and cultural tolerance and integration which became an asset for international insertion of this region in the international system.
The aim of the paper is to evaluate the impact of those cultural implications originated from the history of migrations towards Latin America foreign policies. On one side, tolerance and integration provided a path to a more comprehensive and cooperative approach towards international system. Diplomacies have used the language of cooperation between cultures as rhetoric discourse to action in favor of a positive concept of cooperation in international society. Migrants and mix-culture helped to build an approach differentiated of this region vis-à-vis other regions of the world.
On the other side, migrant flux has changed in the recent decades. Latin American started to migrate to Europe, Japan and to the United States. The region became a land of migrant-export rather than migrant-import. Which are the impacts of this new pattern of international relation of Latin America with now migrant-import countries like Europe? How has reacted Latin American foreign policies after experiences of racism and other social problems faced for those migrants in Europe, United States of America and Japan?
The empirical scope of the research is to be included with diplomatic sources and other journalistic and government papers. Some cases, particularly Brazil, Colombia and Argentina will be addressed.

The Edot ha Mizrah in Israel (1948-1977)

The paper, which resumes a wider research on the subject carried out for the author’s Ph. D., aims to analyze the impact of the arrival in Israel of the Edot ha Mizrah, the Jewish immigrants coming from Muslim countries (mainly from Yemen and Iraq), on the Israeli society since the birth of the country up to the Labour defeat. The doubling of the population in the first three years of the newborn State of Israel, due to the massive immigration mainly of Jews from the Edot ha Mizrah, indeed involves the orientalization of the rising Israeli society and therefore problems still existing in the life of the State.

Chinese Migration to Philippines in the 19th century: a process affecting the relations between Spain, China and Philippines

This paper will analyze the impact produced by the arrival of more than 100.000 Chinese to the Philippines in the 19^th century, during the Spanish Administration, and the problems that this process produced. These problems were related with the role the played in the archipelago, the problems and the methods for their integration, the consideration they reached as foreigners or as citizens, the taxes they should pay depending of that consideration, the rights and duties they had, the cultural impact and mutual understanding... All these problems had a direct effect on the relations between Spain and China and a decisive influence on the development of Philippines.

Une migration des habitants de la Russie 1918-1939: La première république Tchecoslovaque comme lieu de transferts culturels en Europe

L’évolution des événements politiques en Russie en automne 1917, la prise de pouvoir par les bolchéviks et par la suite l’ éclatement de la guerre civile suscitèrent la première grande vague migratoire du territoire de la Russie au 20e siècle. Entre 1917 – 1921 plus que 2 millions d’habitants quittèrent la Russie à cause du désaccord avec l’évolution politique du pays.
Pour la plupart des exilés la vie en émigration fut déterminée par la situation sociale difficile, le statut juridique incertain des fugitifs, et pourtant, ceux et celles qui faisaient partie de cette vague migratoire soignaient leurs racines spirituelles et conservaient leurs traditions et coutumes.
Dans les années 1920 – 1930 La Tchécoslovaquie devint un noyau d’importance de l’exile politique russe en Europe centrale. Le nombre des migrants oscillaient entre 24 000 – 30 000 personnes. La manière d’aborder le problème des exilés de Russie par les milieux officiels de Tchécoslovaquie fut conditionné par plusieurs facteurs et à partir de juin 1921 elle prit la forme de l’aide approuvée par le gouvernement tchécoslovaque sous le nom de l’Action d’aide russe.
Les subventions du gouvernement tchécoslovaque se dirigeaient surtout vers l’éducation des émigrés et soutenaient leurs associations et activités culturelles. Dans la première moitié des années 1920 un réseau des écoles russes émergea à Prague, où se formèrent de nombreux étudiants russes. De nombreux professeurs et chercheurs russes y trouvèrent leur emploi spécialisé. Il ne faut pas oublier de nouveaux instituts de recherche, archives et maisons d’édition russes.
La Tchécoslovaquie devint au fur et à la mesure un centre recherché culturel et d’éducation de l’exil russe de l’Europe dans l’entre-deux-guerres. Dans notre contribution nous allons nous poser la question sur la rencontre de la culture russe avec le milieu ethniquement bigarré de leur pays d’accueil, où les traditions culturelles d’origine slave subissaient l’impact de la culture germanophone, du hungarisme et d’une manière plus récente aussi francophone et américaine (USA). Quelles stratégies d’intégrations et / ou de son refus choisirent de nouveaux arrivants ? Leur cohabitation avec les peuples en Tchécoslovaquie fut-elle de longue durée ou passager ? Le lieu de transfert contribua-t-il à l’émergence d’un nouveau phénomène culturel ou sur la sociabilité des citoyens de la République tchécoslovaque

British Families in Argentina's pampas. Genealogy and influence in the long 19th Century.

Immigration policy in Argentina started with Bernardino Rivadavia, mainly from the signing of the Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation with Great Britain(1825). It gave the British the same civil rights, property, commerce and religion that the native citizens. From this Treaty it was intended to ensure that farmers which immigrated from Northern Europe, would work the land, so far unproductive. In 1866, some traditional Argentine families created the Sociedad Rural Argentina. Also the British, who had land and were engaged in agricultural activities, participated in that company. The aim of this study is:
1) Identify the members of the Sociedad Rural Argentina of British descent.
2) Establish whether activities of the descendants of British farmers were inherited or arose on its own initiative.
3) Recognize family ties (trade, professional and even political) between the British farmers and the establishment (ruling class) of Argentina.

Une migration des habitants de la Russie 1918-1939: La première république Tchecoslovaque comme lieu de transferts culturels en Europe

L’évolution des événements politiques en Russie en automne 1917, la prise de pouvoir par les bolchéviks et par la suite l’ éclatement de la guerre civile suscitèrent la première grande vague migratoire du territoire de la Russie au 20e siècle. Entre 1917 – 1921 plus que 2 millions d’habitants quittèrent la Russie à cause du désaccord avec l’évolution politique du pays.
Pour la plupart des exilés la vie en émigration fut déterminée par la situation sociale difficile, le statut juridique incertain des fugitifs, et pourtant, ceux et celles qui faisaient partie de cette vague migratoire soignaient leurs racines spirituelles et conservaient leurs traditions et coutumes.
Dans les années 1920 – 1930 La Tchécoslovaquie devint un noyau d’importance de l’exile politique russe en Europe centrale. Le nombre des migrants oscillaient entre 24 000 – 30 000 personnes. La manière d’aborder le problème des exilés de Russie par les milieux officiels de Tchécoslovaquie fut conditionné par plusieurs facteurs et à partir de juin 1921 elle prit la forme de l’aide approuvée par le gouvernement tchécoslovaque sous le nom de l’Action d’aide russe.
Les subventions du gouvernement tchécoslovaque se dirigeaient surtout vers l’éducation des émigrés et soutenaient leurs associations et activités culturelles. Dans la première moitié des années 1920 un réseau des écoles russes émergea à Prague, où se formèrent de nombreux étudiants russes. De nombreux professeurs et chercheurs russes y trouvèrent leur emploi spécialisé. Il ne faut pas oublier de nouveaux instituts de recherche, archives et maisons d’édition russes.
La Tchécoslovaquie devint au fur et à la mesure un centre recherché culturel et d’éducation de l’exil russe de l’Europe dans l’entre-deux-guerres. Dans notre contribution nous allons nous poser la question sur la rencontre de la culture russe avec le milieu ethniquement bigarré de leur pays d’accueil, où les traditions culturelles d’origine slave subissaient l’impact de la culture germanophone, du hungarisme et d’une manière plus récente aussi francophone et américaine (USA). Quelles stratégies d’intégrations et / ou de son refus choisirent de nouveaux arrivants ? Leur cohabitation avec les peuples en Tchécoslovaquie fut-elle de longue durée ou passager ? Le lieu de transfert contribua-t-il à l’émergence d’un nouveau phénomène culturel ou sur la sociabilité des citoyens de la République tchécoslovaque

Migrations and Cultural Approaches to Latin America Foreign Policies

Latin American historical formation has been marked by a huge cultural, social, economic and political contribution of migrants. Waves of European and Asian migrants left important impact after the formation of independent states in 19th century and early 20th. Demography has witnessed dramatic changes. Languages and cultural codes has been improved in new sort of mix-societies, as proposed by Latin American intellectuals such as Darcy Ribeiro in Brazil or Leopoldo Zea in Mexico. After the relevant impact of African descents and slavery in colonial times, these two centuries became relevant laboratory of migrant experiences and mixture of cultures which arrived from different parts of the world. This produced a unique experience of social and cultural tolerance and integration which became an asset for international insertion of this region in the international system.

The aim of the paper is to evaluate the impact of those cultural implications originated from the history of migrations towards Latin America foreign policies. On one side, tolerance and integration provided a path to a more comprehensive and cooperative approach towards international system. Diplomacies have used the language of cooperation between cultures as rhetoric discourse to action in favor of a positive concept of cooperation in international society. Migrants and mix-culture helped to build an approach differentiated of this region vis-à-vis other regions of the world.

On the other side, migrant flux has changed in the recent decades. Latin American started to migrate to Europe, Japan and to the United States. The region became a land of migrant-export rather than migrant-import. Which are the impacts of this new pattern of international relation of Latin America with now migrant-import countries like Europe? How has reacted Latin American foreign policies after experiences of racism and other social problems faced for those migrants in Europe, United States of America and Japan?

The empirical scope of the research is to be included with diplomatic sources and other journalistic and government papers. Some cases, particularly Brazil, Colombia and Argentina will be addressed.

Migrations and Cultural Transfers: From India to the United States of America

Indian culture has been enriched by the many migrations it has received from outside the subcontinent over its long history. Indians themselves have migrated to other parts of the world in fairly large numbers and deeply influenced cultural developments there in past eras. The most recent examples of the Indian diaspora are from the last two hundred years.
This paper will discuss Indian resident in the US and their not inconsiderable impact on the host country. Some of the most visible evidence of cultural influence is seen in popular cuisine, proliferation of yoga classes and meditation centres, literature, and in particular professions. Indian influence of an already pluralist mainstream American culture naturally varies by age group and location, but cannot be denied.
This paper will be based on material collected from successive US Census Reports, published accounts, interviews with community leaders and first hand experience of changes that have taken place over forty years of intermittent residence in the Washington metropolitan area.

Migrations and Cultural Approaches to Latin American Foreign Policies

Latin American historical formation has been marked by a huge cultural, social, economic and political contribution of migrants. Wave of European and Asian migrants left important impact after the formation of independent states in 19th century and early 20th. The aim of the paper is to evalute the impact of those cultural implications originated from the history of migrants towards Latin America foreign polices. On one side, tolerance and integration provided a path to a more comprehensive and cooperative approach towards international sistem. On the other side, migrant flux has changed in the recent decades. Latin America started to migrate do Europe, Japan and to the United States. How has reacted Latin American foreign policies after experices of racism and other social problems faced by those migrants in Europe, the United States and Japan? The empirical scope of the research is to be included with diplomatic sources and other journalistic and governmental papers. Some cases, particularly Brazil, Colombia and Argentna will be addressed.

Rapports économiques et culturels entre Indiens et Français à Pondichéry (XVIIIe siècle)

Ni les migrations, ni les transferts culturels sont des phénomènes typiques et exclusifs du XXe siècle: ce rapport vise à présenter le cas de la migration de certaines familles du sud de l'Inde vers les établissements français sur la côte Coromandel (notamment Pondichéry), à partir de la fin du XVIIe siècle, jusqu'à l'apogée de la gloire de la France dans le subcontinent (1748-1750).
Pour les compagnies commerciales d'Europe - et même plus pour celle française, arrivée en Inde la dernière - la collaboration avec les principales familles de marchands indiens logés chez les comptoirs français était d'une importance fondamentale, tant pour promouvoir les relations avec les princes indiens, que pour obtenir accès à les castes des commerçants locaux. Le personnage nommé dubassi (dubash en anglais et courtier en français), non seulement répondait à la nécessité d'anticiper l'argent pour l'achat des marchandises destinées à être renvoyés en France, mais il était un interprète entre les fonctionnaires européens et les chefs indiens, il prêtait assistance dans l'achat de marchandises, il était utilisé pour percevoir les impôts sur les terres détenues par la Compagnie, et souvent il était juge des Indiens sujets aux Français.
Le plus célèbre courtier de Pondichéry est certainement Ananda Ranga Pillai, l'auteur d'un intéressant journal qui couvre les années 1736-1761 et qui a été traduit au début du XXe siècle par Henry H. Dodwell, curator of the Madras record office (The private diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai, dubash to Joseph-François Dupleix, edited by H.H. Dodwell, 12 vol., Madras, 1922): ne manquent pas, cependant, d'autres exemples qui nous permettent d'évaluer, à travers les témoignages des Français (laïcs et du clergé) et des Indiens de l'époque, le processus du développement social, économique et culturel de ces familles dans les établissements indiens de la Compagnie des Indes. Un transfert culturel, celui-ci, qui, d'un côté, a permis à la France de comprendre les dynamiques de la politique des royaumes indiens et la mentalité de leurs souverains, et, de l'autre, a consenti aux Indiens "immigrés" d'obtenir sûreté personnelle, travail et parfois - après la conversion au catholicisme - des positions officielles de prestige absolu. Ce transfert culturel, cependant, n'a pas permis aucune intégration entre les deux communautés: dans tous les comptoirs indiens de la Compagnie des Indes, Européens et Indiens continuent à vivre dans des quartiers séparés et, même où les conversions au christianisme ont été importantes (par exemple, à Pondichéry), on n'a jamais eu, par les convertis, un réel abandon de leurs coutumes et de leurs vieilles traditions, on n'a jamais eu une “européanisation” des Indiens des établissements français.

Packages in the Alpine long-distance trade up to the introduction of a standardised metric system

“colli”, “balle”, “casse” and similar terms refer to historical carrying loads of the transalpine long-distance transportation, which were neither concisely defined by weight nor determined by volume. However, it seems that the actors of the forwarding business in the modern times related these concepts to distinct ideas of cubature and load, which they ordinarily measured against the carrying capacity of pack animals and the adversities of the environment. Serially evaluable source texts in the Stockalper archive in Brig prove that in the 17th and 18th century some of these packages fluctuated within a clearly fixed range. In contrast, only a later period should bring a weight checking of the all-purpose term “colli”, which was finally labelled down to the ounce.

From the amphora to the container Packaging and stowage on ships, past and present

We would like to present the results of an interdisciplinary symposium, with his thematic synergies and new problematics that allow a diachronic approach . The objective was the study of packaging and stowage of maritime cargo over a very long period of time, its variation according to the trade or goods, as well as navigational period

Weights and Measures in Early Modern Taxation and Accounting Procedures - The Example of Eighteenth-century British Customs Statistics (Scotland)

The paper examines the introduction of the English Restoration Customs System (1660s.) in Scotland by the Union 1707 and the ways it changed trade patterns, accounting procedures and the production of Scottish tradistics alike. Special attention will be drawn to the following questions:
- How was information yielded in the ports (customs accounts -> port books) transferred to central administration authorities such as Board of Customs (Edinburgh) or the Treasury (London)? - How reliable is the information on commodity flows obtained from English and Scottish Trade Statistics (1696/1755)? Can these trade statistics (SCHUMPETER, E. B., English Overseas Trade Statistics, 1697–1808, Oxford 1960) be interpreted as reliable accounts of factual commodity flows, or which problems - which have been hitherto overlooked by economists and historians alike - obtain with regard to the commodity declarations (not to speak of the prices and valuations) contained in these accounts?

The volume of Baltic shipping at the end of the eighteenth century: a new estimation based on the Danish Sound Toll Registers

In this paper, I present a new estimation of the volume of Baltic shipping at the end of the eighteenth century. The estimation is new insofar as it will take the actual archival registrations of shipping and trade in the Baltic Sea as a starting point (i.e. the Danish Sound Toll Registers), rather than using estimates based on average distance and size of the ship, which are commonly expressed in tonkm.
The main sources of this paper are (1) the database of Sound traffic in the years 1784-1795, created by the Danish historian Hans Christian Johansen in 1984 and recently edited by the Dutch historian George Welling (2009); (2) Horace Doursther's Dictionnaire universel des poids et mesures (1840) and (3) the database on early-modern weights and measures, created by Bob Allen and Tommy Murphy (2005).
The estimation of the total volume of Baltic shipping will be based on the calculation of the metric equivalent of the wide variety and geographical scope of the ancient measures that were used in trade at that time.
The expected outcome of this paper is a metric estimation of the total volume of Baltic trade at the end of the eighteenth century including all products and places appearing in the database of Sound traffic in the years 1784-1795.
The scientific goal of this paper is twofold. On the one hand, it is a test for the accuracy of tonkm estimations that are used widely in economic history. On the other hand, this paper will highlight a number of specific metrological issues concerning estimations of the volume of Baltic shipping in the eighteenth century.

Parliamentary Bureaucracy in Italy between politics and administration

The Italian Parliamentary Bureacracy is one of the strongest among European Parliaments. Both in the Senate and in the Chamber of Deputies, officials have formed an administrative body with a sharp professional identity based on impartiality, institutional vocation and documentarian support. The first Secretary General, as a chief of the administration, appeared during Giolitti's period before the first world war. Subsequently, the fascist regime reduced to obeyance also parliamentary officials. After the second world war, parliamentary bureacrracy has played a crucial role in a constitutional system based on political parties and parliamentary groups.

A supranational parliamentary bureaucracy: the Secretariat of the European Parliament, 1952-1979

In order to maximise the prerogatives granted by the Treaties, the European Parliament devoted great attention, since the beginning, to developing its administrative structure. The Secretariat of the European Parliament had the task of assuring, through its action of information and documentation, the continuity of work of an institution composed of parliamentarians for whom, as they were members of national parliaments, the mandate to Strasbourg could only be a part-time job. The paper will analyse the main characteristics of this bureaucracy since its foundation at the time of the Common Assembly of the ECSC.

Max Weber and the parliamentary bureaucracy of his time

Parliamentary bureaucracy can be considered in the German Kaiserreich as an extensive concept, since one of the representative institutions, the Federal Council (Bundesrat), is constituted by nominated officials. Furthermore, they play a decisive role in the Executive and mainly contribute in defining political issues. Weber's analysis represents a precise description of the historical situation as well as of its political implications. It also shows the interaction between existing institutions and conceptual understanding, in order to improve comprehension from a methodological point of view, to make critical remarks, and to open the way to a perspective of reforms on a practical level.

The Italian parliamentary bureaucracy during the libel age

The paper will examine the limited staff of employees who carried out recording and executive activities in both Chambers, since the grant of the Statuto albertino (1848) which established the representative institutions in the Kingdom of Sardinia (from which later -1861 - originated the Kingdom of Italy).
In both chambers the first plant was built on two figures: the estensore del processo verbale and the bibliotecario archivista: the former had to certify the things done and passed in the House; the latter should look after the library but also keep documents and letters. Other employees joined these main figures and would gain relevant roles. In particular, since the beginning, a decisive role was played by the stenographers and records’ editors who guaranteed the publicity of parliamentary works. A growing role would also be played by the administrative bureau whose director would increase his dominant position which would be certified at the beginning of XX century with the establishment of the General Secretary in the elective chamber. An independent and authoritative bureaucracy was born

Remontrances contre lettres de cachet, ou l'habeas corpus a la française en 1788

Cette intervention embrasse principalement deux champs : celui de la rhétorique et celui de la place qu’ont pris les parlements en 1788 dans la défense de l’individu et de sa liberté. L’échec consubstantiel à la la rhétorique parlementaire ne fut-il pas partie prenante d’un succès public d’émancipation individuelle ?

Les discours sur les minorités religieuses aux Cortes portugaises du Moyen Âge

Nous allons présenter les discours des procureurs des municipalités aux Cortes, membres des oligarchies chrétiennes, sur le rôle social des minorités religieuses, les juifs et les maurs.

L'age d'or des grands orateurs au Parlement francias, 1870-1914

La Troisième République, notamment entre 1870 et 1914, est considérée à juste titre comme l’un des âges d’or de la délibération et de l’éloquence parlementaire en France. C’est un temps où la parole est reine, où les morceaux de bravoure ou les joutes oratoires rythment la vie politique, où les lois se modifient ou se repoussent par la seule force du discours, où les gouvernements croulent sous le poids des mots, voire tombent sous le choc d’une formule.
Pourquoi cet âge d’or ? On montrera en premier lieu comment le mode de fonctionnement des chambres, qui peuvent exercer le pouvoir législatif dans toute sa plénitude, « virtuellement sans limites », sans aucune borne juridique ou politique, autorisent ce que certains appelleront une « anarchie parlementaire . » Dans un second temps, on verra que la formation intellectuelle et professionnelle des parlementaires, qui constituent une élite du savoir et de la culture, les prédispose à mettre en valeur l’éloquence. Dans ce Parlement des avocats, des journalistes, des professeurs, la discussion en séance est l’essence même de la démocratie parlementaire. Enfin, on tentera d’inventorier les principaux types d’éloquence parlementaire, en distinguant les grands orateurs, tels Léon Gambetta, Georges Clemenceau, Aristide Briand ou Albert de Mun, qui ont marqué cet âge d’or de la délibération.